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HUMAN ORIGINS 
VOLUME II 





THE GIANT MENHIR OF MANIO NEAR CARNAC, MORBIHAN, FRANCE, 


HUMAN ORIGINS 


A MANUAL OF PREHISTORY 


AY, 


GEORGE GRANT MacCURDY, PH.D. 


RESEARCH ASSOCIATE IN PREHISTORIC ANTHROPOLOGY WITH PROFESSORIAL 
RANK, CURATOR OF ANTHROPOLOGY, YALE UNIVERSITY; DIRECTOR OF 
THE AMERICAN SCHOOL OF PREHISTORIC RESEARCH IN EUROPE 





VOLUME II 


THE NEW STONE AGE AND THE 
AGES OF BRONZE AND IRON 


D. APPLETON AND COMPANY 
NEW YORK :: MCMXXIV :: LONDON 





COPYRIGHT, 1924, BY 
D. APPLETON AND COMPA 


PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF 





CONTENTS 


PAGE 
Key To ABBREVIATIONS . ; : , ; : 3 : x : ; XV 


easel Eon 


fei W STONE AGE AND: THE 
mah OF. BRONZE AND IRON 


CHAP DER a 

THE TRANSITION FROM THE PALEOLITHIC TO THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD 3 
The Azilian Culture . 4 
France and Spain 4 
Great Britain y 
The Tardenoisian Culture 9 
The Maglemosean Culture EO Lede toe heeds, gee: gilt 9.1 

Geographic Distribution of Azilian, Tardenoisian and Magle- 
CCC yh ae a I 

CHAPTER ax 

SUMP ERIOD Sk ke a ee CO 
RU IEIPONOIOS Vy? 7 ae a 
Scandinavia ; Sey Oe Mae Te oe ae 
Epoch of the Bohen Maden : aes 
Epoch of the Pointed and Flat-Poled ret or obLatehiet Bo, 
Mercer ier otone Graves: es 22°" 28 
France . : ‘ ; : 5 ; : ; : : 3 ee. 
Switzerland : : ; ; ; : : ; ; poe tt 
Belgium i et een a eT hk ees aes Ly) et AF 
monenicia’! ).. .. MR re ee ae cd atin LAY, 
Babylonia, Elam, interns nC meow, 2 7 ot Reena) 
Egypt, Persia, Crete sae ge aes: | pea 
Mining RMS Wea, techie te tr LS in, ig ig eta BS 
Obourg oe, a te aha ee yt ah fae Secu 4 
ee Eitan ME te Mies ely al ya he pet 3 


v1 


CONTENTS 


Spienne ; 
Sainte-Gertrude . 
Grime’s Graves . 
Cissbury 
France . 
Sweden 
Ohio 5 
Oklahoma and pene : 
Workshops and Land Habitations 
Lake Dwellings . 
Neolithic Pottery 
Clays 
Paste 
Technique 
Decoration . 
Molds 
The Potter’s Whects: 
Baking . : 
Decoration and Clisiben en 
Textiles : 
Articles of Personal Gone : 
Sculpture ; 
The Burial Rite . 
Burial in Artificial aoe 
Burial in Natural Caves . 
Burial Under Erratic Boulders 
Stone-Cist Burials 
Megalithic Monuments 
Dolmens » 
Geographic Dirncetion a Donen ; 
Origin of Dolmens . : 
Menhirs, Cromlechs, and Aline , 


CHAP TiGkeex It 


THE STONE-AGE CULTURE COMPLEX 


The Taming of Fire . 

Hunting 

Fishing 

Navigation . 

The Wheel . 

The Domestication of Maimate a Plants 
The Dog 


103 
103 
105 
106 
107 
109 
114 
121 
122 
123 


133 
134 
139 
140 
141 
149 
I5I 
152 


CONTENTS vil 


PAGE 
ne Ie ch he rain ot er MR OR gy 152 
mer rem ei a ER 2 G2 
aE eee ME So es he ae) Par SR eo TZ 
SE SE eat Pe PS ea Be gy ed eS OS 153 
ee ter ee ws) A 53 
TON ee. ea Ft he yl ee S153 
Peentse 4° >. in big dey RR OG Pe art Nae ener alee ae many BY 
uM MN | ve eR RN gp rg og 8 og ST57 
Commerce . PE eee hr ta pe Mist eae ei Py cat wad TBS 
The Healing bork Pe Re as ane tee See he  T6O 
Religion RI TLS hh oteey a rd) 5 (are ee LOO 
GEDA PLE REX IIL 
Pm ge a a ZS 
Metallurgy . : : : : : : : ; : ; te 75 
Copper . ‘ : : : : : . : 3 : . et 7U 
Tin ; : : : ; : : ; ; ; é OE yes! 
(Cre) (ce : ; P A ‘ : . : : ; : fen 1 79 
RIRIMPEIES ETN Sat 6g a ee AR 180 
eR ee a Bo BI 
Tron : : : : ‘ : : : ; : ne Tol 
Bronze-Age Chronology ER UE ei ite es ee mr LOS 
Habitations. . Pe oe te en er. NG eh OSG 
foemus or Caches: -  . ; : ; : Fe ti : ; . 188 
Seema ernie) BO a ee TQ2 
Pee NGH Aes grehie Side ay ADAIR edie. Fe a aOR oO ote 8 
PoaseanoeUiensils .  .. . PIS i ear Cale 
Articles of the Toilet and Beene dane : ; ; . 9206 
RI ce ee GG 208 
Commerce . eR tare ea ee Liat Ad Oe ag BOT 
Peon iand<Art are Se er I eh cen en gs eee he a ee TS 
CG ME ys bey bie So Te Oy ap eee 
WEA Ph riRheex Lv. 
EE Es ET Oe gcd SE inl Mi eg vw ks te. B27 
The Hallstatt Epoch hee PAR Me teeing. ee paeMimeae a wlmedea e119) 
ea GR AM EL, Olea Nida tee Gee ee pee Ee So B30 
Ma atl bee te RM ie Ae et oe ea SA ee ee. 236 
copes SAUCE UOT IA eRe ad ch a Re SERS ae owt ges, Sag! s ee 4230 


Se a eee ee Aw ac oN herein e (neg) a ayo ie vm ey AO 


Vill CONTENTS 


Tools and Utensils 
Pottery: , 
Dress and re tee 
he. Epoch, of .Cay] ene? 
Habitations 
Weapons : 
Helmets and Shields 
Tools and Utensils 
Pottery’: 
Money . : 
Dress and eset 
Religion and Art 
Sepulture 


CHINE Rew. 


PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF PosT-PLEISTOCENE MAN 
Azilian-Tardenoisian Man 
Neolithic Man 
Man of the Bronze and aa Nose 


APPENDIGES 


I, STRATIGRAPHIC STUDY OF PALEOLITHIC SITES 
Il. REPERTORY OF PALEOLITHIC ART . : : 
lll. ON THE PRESERVATION OF PREHISTORIC MONI'MENTS 


INDEX 


PAGE 
241 
244 
246 
250 
251 
253 
255 
260 
265 
267 
268 
275 
279 


291 
292 
294 
296 


301 
419 
458 


479 


The giant menhir of Manio, near Carnac, Morbihan, France 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


Frontispiece 
FIGURE PAGE 
255. The stations of the Mas d’Azil, Ariege, France, on either bank of 
the River Arise... 4 
256. Flat harpoons of stag Hann and foinied rohics ont Mas @Azil. 
Bamana Epoch  .  . 5 
257. Comparison of Spanish petr Bel enie aay the desienee on allan nainted 
pebbles Wee St ail My Bir Seek ls 6 
258. Microliths of the Tieden oisian Epoch 10 
259. Cultural remains of the Maglemosean Epoch . A tea 
260. Maglemosean pointed bone shaft fitted with microliths : 14 
261. Cultural remains of the Danish kitchen middens. Maglemosean Epoch 15 
262. Map showing the geographic distribution in eee of the Azilian, 
Tardenoisian, and Maglemosean cultures . 16 
263. Flint ax with flat pole from Mogenstrup, Denmark . 28 
264. Ground plan of a small dolmen at Vollerup, Moen Island, pana 28 
265. A tumulus near Olstykke, Denmark, covering two deimens ahgiode| 
nearer view of one of the dolmens 20 
266. Dolmen of Trie-Chateau, Oise, France . 3 31 
267. Tumulus covering a giant Areca at Olena. Zeand Denman 32 
268. Ground plan of a giant dolmen of the northern type at Gundestrup- 
eaard, Jutland, Denmark».  . SARUM. ban gt m6). RMN, 2.6)5, 33 
269. Thick-poled flint axes from Denmark eh 
270. Stone axes which were used as weapons... 38 
271. Middle stage in the evolution of the Reanim sien Aint dagger or 
poniard F AI 
272. Final stage in the Be ianon of the Scandinavian flint iEREES or Seeriard 43 
273. Section through the Neolithic habitation site at Campigny, Seine- 
ee CCG is me Si I Vad SO aa 
274. Flint pick PEI MOND Sy wen go gl twig et ee 45 
275. Flint paring knife from Campigny . . stares 45 
276. Section of a flint mine at Mur de Barrez, Nations Mpatice 53 
277. Deer-horn pick used in the mining of flint, from Grime’s Graves, 
Norfolk, England 56 
278. Chalk fanip from the flint mines Gi Giectiney eee Sungind ee Sy 
279. Ground plan and section of a Neolithic house at Cree south- 
ern Germany : 62 
280. Large nuclei of ecowar flint, so ited esas SE fr coton fon 
Grand-Pressigny, Indre-et-Loire . . 65 
281. Hafted stone implements from the Neolithic pile maltee ae Bont ae 
Neuchatel, Switzerland . . 68 
282. Hafted flint dagger from the Neolithic pile village’ of Manele: Take 
Gt Gienne, Switzerland ... °. 69 
283. Three types of stag-horn sockets for axes, reanl te ie miles 5 
Vinelz, Switzerland 70 


1x 


Xx 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


FIGURE 


284. 


285. 
2806. 
287. 
288. 
280. 
290. 


201. 


202. 
203. 
204. 


205. 
200. 
297. 
208. 
2990. 


300. 
301. 


302. 


303. 


Reconstruction of a group of Neolithic pile dwellings at Unter Uhl- 
dingen on Lake Constance, Germany... 

Examples of Neolithic pottery from Canpat Burope 

Caliciform vases from Finistére . . 

Pottery vases from Rossen, district of Mercere German 

Urns from Eilsdorf on the Huy, Germany. Early Iron Age 

Late Neolithic pottery vases with teat-shaped supports 

Neolithic pottery with spiral chevron decorations, from Butmir; Jugo- 
slavia aR 

Neolithic clay Aoveiee ih battOo pedteria font Chenean near 
Jassy, Rumania . 

Early Neolithic clay eccelg oi ihe banded oe front Bohene 

Late Neolithic clay vessels with punctate decoration from Bohemia 

Examples of Neolithic weaving, from Robenhausen and Wangen, 
Switzerland RI Tele Pe is 

Reconstruction of a RVeolehin icon ee . 

Pendant of amber in the form of an ax, frofn Bane Siveden 

Neolithic sculptured reliefs representing the human female : 

Neolithic hafted ax engraved on the wall of an artificial burial cave 
near Coizard, Marne, France. . 

Front and rear views of a Neolithic erate entae representine a 
human female, from Saint-Sernin, Aveyron, France 

Interior of the passage grave of Gavr’inis, Brittany . 

Hafted ax carved on a stone from the passage grave of Caer inis, 
Brittany 

Shield carved on one bE Ate: Ge tie tones OF fhe dolmer inant 
as the “Table des Marchands” : 

Shields carved on the supports of the delmen c Pierress Pilates a 
Locmariaquer, Morbihan . 


. Sculpture under an erratic Henlder near Rordes. Aneee fan 

. Neolithic burial as discovered in a cemetery near Worms, Germany 

. Neolithic habitation site at Molsheim, near Worms, Germany 

. End view of a mid-Neolithic cist burial on La Motte, Jersey 

. The alinements of Menac near Carnac, Morbihan, Prance : 

. Possible methods of lifting and moving huge monolithent in prehistoric 


times 


. The fallen Cant meHiin at ocnariaener Mocbinae France : 
. Section and ground plan of the passage grave of Gavr’inis, Morbihan 
. Engraved stones from the dolmen near Gohlitsch, Saxony 

. The dolmen of Mané-Lud at Locmariaquer, Morbihan, France ; 
. Dolmen known as the “Table des Marchands” at Locmariaquer, 


Morbihan 


. The dolmen of Kerveresse, at Carnac, Morbihan 

. Ensemble view of Stonehense, Wiltshire, England 

. Detail view of Stonehenge from the “Altar Stone” 

. Pyrites and strike-a-lights dating from the Magdalenian Epoch to the 


Iron Age 


. Human dorsal ertehes pierced As a aarpite pone frets the cave 


of Montfort, Ariége, France 


. Neolithic bone flute from the pile milters of Concise, Vaud, Siwiprerand 
. Neolithic dugouts, the earliest boats known to have been used by man 
. Bronze Age pictographs representing solar-barks from Borge, Norway 
. Viking ship from Gokstad, near Sandefjord, Norway 


IOI 
102 


103 
103 


104 
100 
107 
108 
109 
110 


III 
112 
113 
115 
116 


Tiz 
118 
126 
127 


137 


139 
140 
143 
144 
147 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


FIGURE 

324. Cranial amulets from the Neolithic artificial caves of the Petit-Morin 
valley, Marne, France 

325. Front and top views of a tréphined Thee cranium an Patallacta: 
highlands of Peru : 

326. Neolithic female cranium with chron cicatrice eh the Holmen of 
Conflans-Sainte-Honorine, Seine-et-Oise, France ; 

327. Selection of hand imprints from the cavern of Gargas, Pilentes: 
Pyrénées, France 

328. The principal types of the brane ax hare ihe Brows ire ; 

329. Bronze ax with wings at the pole end from Bae Lake of Bienne, 
Switzerland f 

330. Terramara of Pecieiiazzo +e Barcletta, commune uy Rontaneliato, 
Paria italy:.° |. 

331. A cache of Bronze Age objects prom 2: pon Hoe at Tene sicupe Penal 
Denmark 

aagec art ol-a cache Aaj one Micmdred aad ee yon eheets honed in 
the peat bog of Magleby near Skjelskor, Zealand, Denmark 

333. Univalve stone mold for casting three axes and a knife 

334. Bivalve stone mold for casting saws, from Vidtsk6fle, Scania 

335. Bronze halberds of Epoch IV of the Bronze Age 

336. Bronze swords from the British Isles. 

337. Part of a Bronze Age cache or hoard found a bee Treland 

338. Bronze Age shields from the British Isles : 

339. Late Bronze Age gold poitrel from a cairn at Mold, Flintshire, Wales 

340. Bronze Age trumpet found in a peat bog near Cayce 

341. Male costume during the early Brenze Age 

342. Female costume of the Bronze Age . 

343. Middle Bronze Age gold bracelets from Bonemin 

344. Various types of Bronze Age safety pins or fibulae . 

345. Bronze Age sepulchral pottery from the British Isles : 

346. Bronze Age bridle bits of bronze and of bone and horn fom the 
pile village of Corcelettes, Lake Neuchatel, Switzerland 

347. Amber necklace from a eaves Age barrow at Lake, Wiltshire, Bieiend 

348. Bronze vessels made in Italy and found in the British Isles . 

349. Purse of bronze from the pile village of Wollishofen, Switzerland 

350. Bronze Age weights from the Swiss pile villages 

351. Bronze sun chariot from Trundholm, Denmark . 

352. Bronze situla from Siem, Denmark... 

353. Upper Paleolithic sun symbols on a baton of Peder fot fener fie 
cave of Gourdan, Haute-Garonne, France . 

354. Pottery crescents of the Bronze Age from the pile village ae Garces 
lettes, Lake Neuchatel, Switzerland ; 

355. An A‘gean decoration motive associating the wativer: a with Ale head 
of the ox 

356. Late Bronze Age peony Penresencne a warrior ii aici Reet 
Bohuslan, Sweden... 

357. One of the er eraved stones fran the Bronce Age fom 2yi Regie Sean 

358. Eneolithic sepulture found at Bubenac, near Prague, Bohemia 

359. Iron ingot from Mosul, Assyria 

360. Inhumation tomb superposed on an mieimeraton tomb at SPRINTER 
Austria 

361. Bronze situla of the Hallstatt Boor Pence ‘Haltstatt 

362. Bronze basin of the Hallstatt Epoch, from Hallstatt 


xii 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


FIGURE 


303. 


364. 
305. 
306. 


267. 
368. 
309. 
370. 


Sh bi 
372. 
373: 
374- 
. Sigmoid and navicella fibulae from Hallstatt 

. Fibulae of the Hallstatt Epoch, from Salins, Jura  . 

. Golden ritual bowl of the Hallstatt Epoch, found near 7s Meh oe ae 


. Woman’s belt of bares dating rom vee? Tene tl ; 
. Bronze ornaments from Ard elnnaem near Zurich, Switzerlanm Epoch 


Pottery vase of the Hallstatt Epoch, from Unter Lunichoren Switzer- 
land . 

Grave oe the Hallstatt pepoCtE discovered ot Gianicoes Switreniana 

Double rampart of the Camp d’Affrique, Meurthe-et-Moselle, France 

Iron-bladed daggers with antennae of the Hallstatt Epoch. from 
Hallstatt i 

Bronze situla of he Halisatt Enoae arn key Corres Roloa: Tialy 

Bronze vase of the Hallstatt Epoch, from Grachwil, Switzerland 

Bronze buckets with ribbed sides of the Hallstatt Epon : 

Bronze vases which served as wine pitchers at the end of the Haltstats 
Epoch and at the beginning of the Epoch of La Téne 

Painted clay vessels of the Hallstatt Epoch, from Bohemia 

Glass vessel from Hallstatt. . 

Female costume of the Hallstatt Epock 

Safety pins of the Hallstatt Epoch, from Salins, ae 


land . 


. Iron dagger with bronze efhey hilt, ae, Newchates Siyttee rane 


Epoch tor) La sLene 


. Lance head of the och on iE Tene fonndit in ihe ber ee fife Thiele, 


near Neuchatel, Switzerland 


. Helmet of Hammered bronze elon to ‘ie Saye of iu. Tae 
. Helmet of the Epoch of La Téne from Amfreville-sous-les-Monts, 


Eure, France 


. Pieces of wooden tare From the type Se tien oa Tee Pena Tatee 


Neuchatel, Switzerland 


. Shield of SF bronze of the Baoct or ne Téne, found in ee 


Thames at Battersea, London 


. Silver cauldron or vase found in a peat oe at Gundestrup, Jutland: 


Epoch of La Téne 


. Two of the inner plaques i ‘he Candee Sivees vase 
. One of the outer and the central inner plaque of the Gundetene vase 
. Fishing and hunting implements of iron and bronze from Lakes 


Neuchatel, Zurich, and Bienne, Switzerland 


° 


. Iron forge from the Bernese jura. Epoch of La Tene : 
. Andiron of iron from Zihl, Switzerland. Epoch of La Téne ; 
. Agricultural implements from Neuchatel, Zurich, and Berlin. Epoch 


of La Tene; 


. Stone handmill from ‘he tants ve Getles Wooch of ie ene 

. Painted clay vessels of the Epoch of La Téne I 

. Painted clay vessel from the necropolis of Haulzy 

. La Tene pottery of the third phase, chiefly from the Mare 

; Bronze fibulae dating from La Téne II ; 

. Bronze fibulae dating from La Téne III 

. Ornaments of the La Téne I from an incineration Gunel at Hanis 


Marne, France 


¥ 


of La Téne 


. Scissors and razors found at the type Station of ae Tene glee ae 
. The chariot burial of La Gorge-Meillet, Marne, France. Full length 


skeletons at two levels 


267 


269 
270 


273 
274 


275 
276 


278 


ILLUSTRATIONS X1li 


FIGURE PAGE 
402. The chariot burial of Somme-Bionne, Marne, France . 24280 
403. Bronze harness trappings from the Spee: Bionne chariot bara 202 
404. Sepulture of a warrior from the cemetery of Vevey, Switzerland . 283 
aimaiesekitivor la bere I], trom Mtinsingen, Berne , . . . . 284 
406. Double burial at Minsingen : tied Ae Anti ck, aur 
407. Incineration burial at Aylesford, Kent acknd Ar nit diy each en Me Rega 
408. Section of the cave deposits of Grosse Ofnet, Bavaria... 292 
409. The small nest of human crania as discovered in the cave at Courts 
Ofnet, Bavaria . : ; ie age = os vee nine 208 


410. Chart of the human Benenlogical teen Set Tite eS a ge NaC ee ema cibae 71 6 13 





7 ¢- 
se 


AA 

| AAE 
ABB 
AFAS 
AIB 
Anat. A. 
Anthr. 
AP 
APAR 
Arch. 
AS 
ASNZ 


BA 
BARB 


BAUB 
BMSA 
BSA 
BSAB 
BSAHC 


BSBG 


BSGF 
BSP F 


CA 


CAF 
CFG 


CIA 
a a ag 


er 
GRC 


DASGN 


DME 
DVD 


KEY TO ABBREVIATIONS 


Archiv fiir Anthropologie, Brunswick, 1866- 

Archivo per l’antropologia e la etnologia, Florence, 1871- 
Archives belges de biologie, Ghent, 1880- 

Association frangaise pour l’avancement des sciences, Paris, 1872- 
Académie des inscriptions et belles-lettres (Comptes rendus), Paris, 1857- 
Anatomischer Anzeiger, Jena, 1886- 

L’anthropologie, Paris, 1890- 

Annales de paléontologie, Paris, 1906— 

Piette, L’Art pendant l’dge du Renne (100 plates), Paris, 1907 
Archaeologia, London, 1749- 

Académie des sciences (Comptes rendus), Paris, 1835- 

Annales des sciences naturelles zodlogiques, Paris, 1854— 


Bulletin archéologique, Paris, 1883- 

Bulletin de l’'Académie royale de Belgique (Classe des Sciences), Brussels, 
1836- 

Bettrage zur Anthropologie und Urgeschichte Bayerns, Munich, 1877-— 

Bulletins et mémoires de la Soctété d’anthropologie de Paris, 1900— 

Bulletins de la Société d’anthropologte de Paris, 1859- 

Bulletin de la Société d’anthropologie de Bruxelles, 1882— 

Bulletin de la Société archéologique et historique de la Charente, Angouléme, 
1845- 

Bulletin de la Société belge de géologie, de paléontologie et d’hydrologie, 
Brussels, 1887— 

Bulletin de la Société géologique de France, Paris, 1830- 

Bulletin de la Société préhistorique francaise, Paris, 1904— 


CARTAILHAC and BrEulIL, La Caverne d’ Altamira prés Santander (Espagne) 
(287 pp., 37 plates), Monaco, 1906 (see PGMCP) 

Congrés archéologique de France (Comptes rendus), Caen, 1843- 

CAPITAN, BREUIL, and PEyrony, La Caverne de Font-de-Gaume (279 pp. 
and 65 pls.), Monaco, 1910 (see PGMCP) 

Congrés tnternational d’anthropologie et d’archéologte 
Neuchatel, Switzerland, 1866-— 

Comision de investigaciones paleontologicas y prehistoricas, Madrid, 1915-— 

Congres préhistorique de France (Comptes rendus), Périgueux, 1905— 

ALCALDE DEL R10, BREUIL, and SIERRA, Les Cavernes de la Région canta- 
brique (Espagne), Monaco, 1911 (see PGMCP) 


Denkschriften der allgemeinen schweizerischen Gesellschaft fiir die gesamm- 
ten Naturwissenschaften, Zurich, 1829- 

HoERNES, Der diluviale Mensch in Europa, Brunswick, 1903 

ScHMIDT, KoKEN, and Scuwiz, Die diluviale Vorzeit Deutschlands, Stutt- 
gart, 1912 


préhistoriques, 


XV 


XVI 


HF 
do fee 


JAI 


JAP. 
KB 


MAGW 
MAGZ 
MARB 


Mat. 


MSA 
MSAB 


NDSNG 


KEY TO ABBREVIATIONS 


OBERMAIER, El Hombre Fostl, Madrid, 1916 
L’homme préhistorique, Paris, 1903- 


Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, 
London, 1871- 
Journal of Anatomy and Physiology, London, 1867- 


Korrespondenz Blatt der deutschen Gesellschaft fiir Anthropologie, Ethnologie 
und Urgeschichte, Brunswick and Munich, 1870- 


Mittheilungen der anthropologischen Gesellschaft in Wien, Vienna, 1871- 

Mitthetlungen der antiquarischen Gesellschaft, Zurich, 1841- 

Mémoires de l’Académie royale de Belgique (Classe des sciences), Brussels, 
1820- 

Matériaux pour l'histoire... . de l’homme, Paris, 1864-1888 

Mémoires de la Société d’anthropologie de Paris, Paris, 1860-1899 

Mémotres de la Société d’anthropologie de Bruxelles, Brussels, 1882— 

OBERMAIER, Der Mensch der Vorzeit, Berlin, Munich, and Vienna, 1912 


Neue Denkschriften der schweizerischen Naturforschenden Gesellschaft 
(continuation of DASGN), Zurich, 1837 

Nordiske Fortidsminder (publication of the Kgl. Nordiske Oldskriftsel- 
skab, with résumés in French), Copenhagen, 1890- 


~ 


BREUIL and OBERMAIER, La Pileta a 
Monaco, 1915 (see PGM CP) 

Peintures et Gravures Murales des Cavernes Paléolithiques (publications of 
the Institut de Paléontologie Humaine), Monaco, 1906— 

Paleontological Memoirs, London, 1868- 

BREUIL, OBERMAIER, and ALCALDE DEL Rio, La Pasiega ad Puente-Viesgo 
(Santander), Espagne (64 pp., 29 plates), Monaco, 1913 (see PGMCP) 

G. and A. DE MorrTiL_et, Le Préhistorique, 3rd edition, Paris, 1900 

Proceedings of the Royal Society, London, 1800— 

Philosophical Transactions, London, 1665- 

Prehistorische Zeitschrift, Berlin, 1909- 


Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society, London, 1845- 


Benoajan (Malaga), Espagne, 


Revue anthropologique (continuation of REA), Paris 

Revue archéologique, Paris, 1844— 

BUCKLAND, Reliquiae Diluvianae, London, 1823 

Revue d’anthropologie, Paris, 1872-1889 

Revue mensuelle de I’Ecole d’anthropologie de Paris, Paris, 1891- 
Revue préhistorique, Paris, 1906- 


Verhandlung der Berliner Gesellschaft fiir Anthropologie, Ethnologie, 
Urgeschichte (appendix for ZE), Berlin, 1869-— 


Wiener Prehistorische Zeitschrift, Vienna, 1914— 
Zeitschrift fiir Ethnologie (see VBGA), Berlin, 1869- 


und 


BAR il 


THE NEW STONE AGE 
Pens THE AGES OF 
Peon AND IRON 





HUMAN ORIGINS 


CEA PE Kix 
THE TRANSITION FROM THE PALEOLITHIC TO THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD 


The hiatus that was once supposed to separate the Magdalenian 
Epoch from the Neolithic Period has tended to disappear with the 
progress of archeological research. The discoveries of Piette have 
contributed more than those of any other one man to bridge the 
gap in our knowledge. The initial stage in the transition is now 
recognized and universally referred to as the Azilian, the name hav- 
ing first been- employed by Piette.* 

This new culture takes its name from the station of Mas d’Azil 
(Ariege), explored by him. It was followed by the Tardenotsian 
culture; in Denmark, Azilian and Tardenoisan are represented by 
the Maglemosean culture. All three combine completely to bridge 
the gap between the Paleolithic and Neolithic Periods. 

The successive steps in this epoch of transition are marked by 
changes in the lithic industry. The small penknife blades appeared 
at the close of the Magdalenian and became more numerous during 
the Azilian; they gradually gave place to a small triangular type 
of microlithic industry associated with small discoidal scrapers. 
In the passage from Azilian to Tardenoisian culture, trapezoidal 
microliths made from long, slender flint blades appeared and per- 
sisted until after the beginning of the Neolithic Period. The little 
flat Azilian pebbles, polished at the end by utilization, sometimes 
on one side, sometimes on both, and in such a manner as to form 
a cutting edge, should not be confused with the polishing employed 
in Neolithic times as a means of shaping and finishing implements. 








1G. de Mortillet proposed the name Tourassian, but it did not meet with 
favor. 


3 


+ HUMAN ORIGINS 


THE AZILIAN CULTURE 


France and Spain.—The type station for the Azilian culture, 
Mas d’Azil,’ is on the left bank of the Arise near the point where 
the river enters its picturesque subterranean passage for a distance 
of 400 meters (1,313 feet) through a limestone formation (Fig. 
255). A great chamber is formed, in part at least, by the river. The 
first discovery of archeo- 
logical remains dates 
from the construction of 
the national highway 
from Carcassonne to 
Saint-Girons (1854), 
following the right bank 
of the Arise throughout 
the length of the cavern. 
A station 6f wiiae 
dalenian age discovered 
on the right bank was 
especially rich in portable 
art objects. 

Piette began his ex- 
cavations on the left 
bank in 1887 and con- 


Fic. 255. ‘THE STATIONS OF MAS D’AZIL, ARIEGE, tinued them during the 
FRANCE, ON EITHER BANK OF THE RIVER ARISE. following years. The 








The Arise flows for a quarter of a mile through a task was laborious and 
great subterranean passage, the entrance of which is A 
shown here. The type station of the Azilian Epoch expensive 5 he encoun- 
is on the left bank of the river, also on the left in the tered nine different hoc 


picture. Photograph by the author. f 
zons, some of which 


measured more than I meter (39.4 inches) in thickness. Begin- 
ning at the bottom, the first five were of Magdalenian age; 
the sixth, Azilian; and the seventh, eighth, and ninth belonged to 
the Neolithic, Bronze and Iron ages, respectively. The Azilian 
layer was characterized by an abundance of stag bones and absence 


2 Mas is the patois for maison, hence, maison d’Asyle; the cavern is said 
to have received its name from the fact of its having served as a refuge for 
the persecuted Huguenots. 


THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION 5 


of the reindeer; by small penknife blades of flint, small discoidal 
scrapers, pebbles that had served as chisels and paring knives, and 
flat, perforated harpoons of staghorn; by two sepultures, the burials 
thought by Piette to have taken place after the flesh had been 
removed and the bones stained with red ocher; and, finally, by the 
so-called painted pebbles. 





Fic. 256. FLAT HARPOONS OF STAGHORN AND PAINTED PEBBLES FROM MAS D’AZIL. 
AZILIAN EPOCH. 


These crude Azilian harpoons are in striking contrast to the beautifully carved Mag- 
dalenian harpoons of reindeer horn (Figs. 99 and 100). The painted pebbles, hundreds 
of which have been found, are the distinguishing feature of this epoch. They may have 
been a form of writing; at any rate the symbols bear striking resemblances to the alpha- 
bets of less ancient races. Scale, 4. After Hoernes. 


While in some respects the lithic industry recalls certain Mag- 
dalenian forms, the absence of bone needles, lance heads, and fine 
harpoons of reindeer horn at once engages the attention. In their 
stead one finds bone points, crude bone spatulae, and flat harpoons 
of staghorn often perforated at the base (Fig. 256). The noble 
and realistic art of the preceding epochs had disappeared. 

Among the treasures gathered at Mas d’Azil are the painted 
pebbles (galets coloriés). By 1891 Piette had found more than 
two hundred. Invited to the site, Cartailhac gathered nine of them 


6 HUMAN ORIGINS 


in four days; Boule and Regnault were equally successful. 


Piette’s 


discoveries called attention to the fact that two painted pebbles, in 
all respects similar to those from Mas d’Azil, had been discovered 





COMPARISON OF SPANISH PETRO- 


FIG. 257. 
GLYPHS WITH THE DESIGNS ON AZILIAN 
PAINTED PEBBLES. 


Many of the Spanish petroglyphs (to the left of 
the broad vertical rules) coincide with the Azilian 
Epoch (15,000 to 10,000 years ago). They are 
stylistic representations of the human form, some 
ca. +. After 


male and some female. Scale, 


Obermaier. 


as early as 1874 in the cave 
of La Crouzade near Nar- 
bonne (Aude) ; they are still 
preserved in the museum at 
at Carcassonne. In 1I89gI 
painted pebbles were found 
by Chamaison and Darbas 
in the rock shelter of La 
Tourasse at Saint-Martory 
(Haute-Garonne), and later 
they were reported from 
various other stations in 
western Europe. 

The painted pebbles at 
Mas d’Azil had been selected 
from the bed of the Arise, 
preference being shown for 
those which were straight 
and flat. Pulverized red 
ocher was employed in the 
coloring; the designs, in part 
at least, might well have 
been traced with the tip of 
the finger, but a small brush 
of some sort was evidently 
used in certain cases. The 
color was thick and might 
have been fixed by grease, or 
some other organic substance 
(Fig. 256). 

In the opinion of Piette, 
these painted pebbles repre- 


sent a system of cursive writing. He believed that at least twelve 
Azilian symbols have been handed down from the close of the Pleis- 
tocene through the Phcenician, archaic Greek, classic Greek, Latin, 


THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION 7 


and Lydian. He pointed out a possible kinship between Azilian 
numbers and those of Egypt. 

A few painted pebbles, or stones somewhat akin to those of 
Azilian age, have been reported from older horizons. In 1922 
Gimon published a pebble on which seven approximately parallel 
red bands had been painted; this pebble came from an Aurignacian 
horizon in the Salpétriére cave at Pont-du-Gard (Gard). Several 
painted stone plaques were found in deposits of Upper Magdalenian 
age in the Klause caves at Neu Essing (Bavaria). According to 
Breuil a painted pebble (not yet published) was found by Hauser 
in the Magdalenian deposits at Laugerie-Haute (Dordogne). Even 
more remarkable is the complete identity between a painted pebble 
found by Riviere in the cave of La Mouthe (Dordogne) and those 
from the type station of Mas d’Azil. Since nothing else that might 
have belonged to the Azilian Epoch was found at La Mouthe, this 
pebble probably antedates the Azilian. Since Aurignacians, Solu- 
treans, and Magdalenians, each in their turn lived at La Mouthe 
—a station also frequented by a Neolithic race, it would hardly be 
beyond the realm of possibility for an Azilian to have found shelter 
there long enough to lose a painted pebble, although it is highly 
improbable. 

Breuil is no doubt right in correlating the stylistic mural figures 
of Spain, especially those of Estremadura and Andalusia, with 
the painted pebbles of Mas d’Azil. The analogy between the Span- 
ish petroglyphs (principally in Andalusia and the whole of the 
Sierra Morena) and the painted pebbles is very strikingly exempli- 
fied by Obermaier in El Hombre Fosil. While some of these 
petroglyphs date from the Neolithic and even later, a large majority 
coincide absolutely with the Azilian-Tardenoisian (Fig. 257). 

The Azilian fauna is modern, composed of species still inhabit- 
ing western Europe. The reindeer had departed toward the north, 
leaving the stag to take its place. There were as yet no domesti- 
cated animals or plants.°® 

Great Britain—The presence of Azilian culture in Great Brit- 
ain, especially in Scotland, is confirmed by various discoveries. 


3 According to Breuil, the pits of prunes and cherries and the grains of 
wheat found by Piette in the Azilian horizon at Mas d’Azil had been carried 
there at a subsequent date by rats. 


8 HUMAN ORIGINS 


The most important were made in the caverns at Oban, built on 
an old raised beach on the west coast of Argyllshire. The princi- 
pal data are from MacArthur cave, which came to notice in 1894. 
The deposits were some 3 meters (9.8 feet) thick and included an 
upper and a lower shell bed. The fauna is recent, corresponding 
to the Azilian, The cultural remains are characterized by the 
absence of pottery and the presence of flat harpoons of staghorn, 
some with and some without a perforation at the base. 

The fact that the lower cultural layer was intercalated in 
gravels of marine origin is proof that it is of considerable antiquity ; 
it dates from a time when the sea level was 9 or 10 meters (29.5 
to 33 feet) higher than at present. According to Geikie, the Oban 
culture can not belong to an earlier epoch than the Upper Tur- 
barian (cold), while he assigns the Azilian to the Lower Forestian 
(warm). ‘The interval of time between these two epochs “repre- 
sents a prolonged period, during which two very considerable 
changes of climate supervened.” 

The rock shelter of Druimvargie at Oban, discovered in 1898, 
has yielded remains similar to those from MacArthur cave, both 
stations evidently dating from the same epoch. At that time the 
two sites were on opposite sides of a small bay and might well 
have been frequented by the same band of hunters. The same 
type of implements that were found at Mas d’Azil (pebbles faceted 
at one end by abrasion) recur at Druimvargie. Portions of two 
harpoons of the same type as those from MacArthur cave, but made 
of bone instead of staghorn and with unilateral barbs, were also 
found. When it is recalled that harpoons of this type were found 
at Mas d’Azil, the identity of culture between these Scottish and 
French stations becomes strikingly apparent. This does not neces- 
sarily mean exact contemporaneity, however, since it would have 
required a considerable lapse of time for a prehistoric culture wave 
to traverse so great a distance. 

The culture of MacArthur cave and Druimvargie recurs in a 
sort of shell mound, known as Caisteal-nan-Gillean, on the island 
of Oronsay, not far from Oban. With the exception of the great 
auk, the faunal remains at Oronsay are those of existing species. 
Among the implements found were two hundred waterworn peb- 
bles worked at one end and eleven harpoons of deerhorn and bone. 


THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION 9 


Harpoons of the Oban type have been found sporadically in 
England. One came from Victoria cave, another was picked up 
as long ago as 1852 on the shore at Whitburn; in the local museum 
at Kirkcudbright there is a harpoon of staghorn which was recog- 
nized by Dr. Robert Munro (1900) as bearing a striking re- 
semblance to one of the harpoons from Caisteal-nan-Gillean. 


THE TARDENOISIAN CULTURE 


The type station for the Tardenoisian culture is in the open, 
within the limits of the park of the ancient Chateau of Fére at Fére- 
en-Tardenois (Aisne).* The site was discovered in 1879 by Judge 
Edmond Vielle,? who found in it a geometric microlithic industry 
including triangular and trapezoidal forms (Fig. 258); among the 
latter were the so-called arrowheads with transverse edges (fléches 
a tranchant transversal). 

Captain Octobon has recently given much time to a detailed 
study of Tardenoisian industry, based largely on the important 
stations of Montbani (Aisne), Le Theil (Loir-et-Cher), Chateau- 
neuf-du-Pape (Gard), and Haussiéres (Aude). The first he calls 
pure, or typical, Tardenoisian, the last three late Tardenoisian. 
Octobon’s conclusions regarding the typical Tardenoisian stations 
ate: 


The workshops or habitations are in the open on sandy soil. 

Microlithic facies and the presence of geometric flints, triangles, 
trapeziums, arcs of circles, etc. 

Diminutive nuclei with two or three striking platforms. 

Utilization of chips removed in the process of Bo eDine the nucleus. 

Very few hammerstones. 

Blades with base reduced before they were removed from the 
nucleus. 

Industry based on the use of the blade entire, or a fragment of -it. 

Abundance of scratchers of all kinds. 

Small blades recalling in miniature the types of Chatelperron and 
La Gravette. 








4The name Tardenoisian was given to this phase of culture by G. de 
Mortillet. 


5 BSA, 4th ser., 1, 959-964 (1890). 


10 HUMAN ORIGINS 


Employment of all hard rocks and the utilization of even the insig- 
nificant chips. 
















LL 


S 





hl 


307 308 


SS 








Fic. 258. MICROLITHS OF THE TARDENOISIAN EPOCH. 


Many of these were probably fitted to harpoons (see Fig. 260). Nos. 295-306, 310-315. 
320-322, 324, 326, 328, are from southern and western Europe; Nos. 317, 318, 325, 320, 
are from northern Africa; and Nos. 307-309, 316, 319, 323, 327 arefrom India. Scale, 3. 
After de Mortillet. 


No retouching on the face of the blades. 
No typical paring knives (tranchets), no special awls, and only 
very rarely anything suggesting the Neolithic arrowhead. 


THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION 11 


At present the Tardenoisian phase of the transition epoch does 
not admit of a very sharp definition. It has elements in common 
with both the Azilian and the Campignian, the latter clearly Neo- 
lithic. Even certain Azilian forms, such, for example, as the flat 
harpoon of staghorn, are carried over, with only slight variation, 
into the Neolithic. Pure Tardenoisian culture can be distinguished 
from Azilian only by the absence of painted pebbles. 


MAGLEMOSEAN CULTURE 


In a peat bog near Mullerup, on the island of Zealand (Den- 
mark), George F. L. Sarauw explored (1900) a station which 
contained elements resembling in part the Azilian-Tardenoisian 
and which evidently belonged to the very close of this transition 
epoch. It is known as Maglemose (great swamp) and was a sort 
of moor dwelling. Neither pottery nor the remains of the reindeer 
were found at Maglemose. The abundance of harpoons and the 
absence of pottery recall the Azilian (Fig. 259); there is this 
difference, however: the harpoons are rarely of staghorn, but of 
bone with a single row of lateral barbs. The microlithic industry 
is that of the Tardenoisian, while the paring knives and a species 
of flint pick foreshadow the coming of the Campignian Epoch. A 
characteristic implement (a species of harpoon) demonstrates at 
least one of the uses to which microliths were put; it is a pointed 
bone shaft with a longitudinal groove on either side into which were 
fitted tiny geometric flints (Fig. 260). 

The character of the fauna and flora of Maglemose proves 
that it must have antedated even the oldest Danish kitchen middens. 
The elk, stag, roebuck, wild boar, and Bos primigenius were domi- 
nant. The moose was practically extinct at the beginning of the 
kitchen-midden epoch. There were no domestic animals, with 
the possible exception of the dog. The pine, dominant at Magle- 
mose, gave place to the oak in the kitchen-midden epoch. The 
Maglemosean industry may, therefore, be correlated with the land 
uplift that converted the Baltic into a fresh-water lake (Ancylus 
stage). 

A second station in the same peat bog, near the one explored 


12 HUMAN ORIGINS 


by Sarauw, was discovered in 1903 and studied by Neergaard for 
the Danish National Museum. 

The extraction of peat from the bog of Svaerdborg, begun in 
1917, led to the discovery of a third very important station belong- 
ing to the Maglemosean Epoch. This site was explored during the 
summers of 1917 and 1918 by K. F. Johansen with the collabora- 








Fic. 259. CULTURAL REMAINS OF THE MAGLEMOSEAN EPOCH. 


a, s, bone polishers; b-h, l-p, r, harpoons; gq, v, bone shafts grooved longitudinally and 
fitted with microliths (see Fig. 260); i, k, fishhooks; t, bone dagger; u, chisel; w, bone ax; 
x, x’, y, staghorn ax and engraved figures. Scale, #. After Obermaier. 


tion of K. Jessen and H. Winge. Winge gives a list of more than 
thirty species of vertebrate remains found at Svaerdborg, the list 
being the same as for the two Maglemosean stations of Mullerup 
but quite different from the list of vertebrate remains from Danish 
kitchen middens. It is preéminently a lake and forest fauna. 
Fragments of one human skull were found. 

Among artifacts, stone implements play a more important role 
than at Mullerup. All are of flint, which is abundant locally. That 


THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION 13 


the site was a workshop and the implements fashioned on the spot 
is attested by the great quantity of chips and rejects—more than 
a hundred thousand in all. Flint blades were much more abundant 
than at Mullerup. The small triangular points play the same role 
at Svaerdborg as the arrowheads with transverse edges do in the 
kitchen middens. This old triangular type persisted, however, and 
is sometimes found in association with the transverse-edge arrow- 
heads, as at Godsted and Bodal. 

Svaerdborg was rich in tools made of deerhorn and of bone 
(776 examples). There were fifty-two examples of the ax made 
of deerhorn with a hole for the insertion of a handle. They belong 
to two types: in one, the deerhorn is cut on a bias to form the edge; 
in the other, the deerhorn serves as a socket into which the cutting 
‘tool or weapon proper (either flint or deerhorn) is fitted. Com- 
plete specimens, except for the handle, were found. All the 
examples from both Mullerup and Svaerdborg are mounted as 
adzes rather than as axes proper; on the other hand, axes and 
adzes are found side by side in the kitchen middens. Horns of the 
roebuck were converted into pointed implements. 

Svaerdborg and Mullerup yielded large quantities of bone points 
made either of tubular bones or of ribs. The points made of ribs 
are not so numerous as those made of tubular bones. They 
are larger than those belonging to the later kitchen-midden epoch. 
Bone points with barbs are especially characteristic of the Magle- 
mose Epoch; all the barbed bone points thus far discovered in 
Denmark antedate the epoch of the kitchen middens. Johansen 
found 213 examples at Svaerdborg, all of the same type, which 
was also dominant at Mullerup and which is distinguishable by 
the presence of one or only a few small barbs just back of the 
point. The point with large hooked barbs and the point with 
many fine barbs are both lacking at Svaerdborg. 

These barbed points were presumably fixed to a shaft or handle, 
though none of these has been preserved. The points sometimes 
occur in bundles as if they had been fixed to a common shaft, but 
the rule was probably a single point to a shaft, forming a sort of 
javelin useful both in the chase and in fishing. The discovery of 
a barbed bone point in immediate association with the skeleton of 
a pike was reported from a peat bog in Scania in 1907. 


14 


HUMAN ORIGINS 


In addition to the bone points described above, three bone 
points each with a bilateral armature of small flints, were found 





Fic. 260. MAGLEMO- 
SEAN POINTED BONE 
SHAFT FITTED WITH 
MICROLITHS. 


This harpoon was 
found in 1867, in a bog 
in Jutland, Denmark, 
Scale, 3. Yale Univer- 
sity Collection. 


at Svaerdborg. Similar examples have been re- 
ported from various parts of the island of Zea- 
land and from Scania, but none were found at 
Mullerup. The only bone point with flint arma- 
ture from Mullerup was of a special type, large 
and flat. A fine example of the type from 
Svaerdborg was acquired by the Peabody Mu- 
seum of Yale University in 1873. The follow- 
ing legend was written on one side of it: “Bog- 
find from Jutland in 1867, by farmer Christen 
Hansen” (Fig. 260). 

Knife handles, both of bone and of deerhorn 
were found at Svaerdborg. The handle made 
from the metatarsal or the metacarpal of the 
wild boar seems to be a novelty; eighteen ex- 
amples were found. The bone was cut off 
squarely a short distance below the proximal 
articulation, and the distal end was chosen for 
use because of its adaptability to the hand and 
its natural cavity into which a tool could easily 
be set. 

Johansen mentions the finding of three bone 
fishhooks at Svaerdborg. The one in most per- 
fect condition was cut from the walls of a 
tubular bone; it has a completely recurved point 
and, so far as shape and workmanship are con- 
cerned, could be duplicated by bone fishhooks 
found by Mills and others in the prehistoric In- 
dian mounds of Ohio. 

Canines of the wild boar and incisors of 
the beaver were employed as cutting tools. Per- 
forated teeth of Ursus, Bos, and the otter were 
employed as pendants. 


Holmegaard, also on the island of Zealand, is a station dating 
from the Maglemosean Epoch. During this epoch settlements were 
generally on low ground on the shores of comparatively large lakes 


THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION 15 


or on small islands in the lakes. This mode of habitation seems 
to have continued uninterruptedly into the epoch of the kitchen 
middens, as attested by the stations in the peat bog of Godsted. 
The remarkable station of Braband (Jutland), which bridges 
the gap between the Maglemosean culture of Mullerup and Svaerd- 
borg and the epoch of the kitchen middens, was discovered in 1900 
and explored in 1903 and 1904. The site is at the eastern extremity 
of the lake of Braband and about 4.7 kilometers (3 miles) south- 
east of Aarhus; it was probably an island at the time it was in- 
habited. The portion explored covers an area of 94 square meters 





Fic. 261. CULTURAL REMAINS OF THE DANISH KITCHEN MIDDENS. MAGLEMOSEAN 
EPOCH. 


The implements illustrated are as follows: a, flint pick; 8, c, flint axes; d, e,f, flint 
scrapers; g, h, flint cleavers; i, flint awl; k, 1, m, implements of staghorn; 1, fish hook; 
0, p, g, bone needles; 7, bone dagger; s, f, bone combs; u,v, w, x, y, 2, pottery. Scale, 
ca.3. After Obermaier. 


(112.6 square yards). It yielded a large quantity of cultural 
remains including flints (30,000 rejects), objects of staghorn, 
articles made of bone (including combs), wooden implements, and 
crude pottery vessels with pointed base (I ig. 261). The wooden 
implements testify to the presence, during the epoch in question, of 
the hazel (abundant), oak, ash, and maple. 

The faunal remains from Braband, in order of their abundance, 
are: Cervus claphus (far in the lead), wild boar, Bos taurus urus, 
Cervus capreolus, Martes sylvatica, dog, seal, elk (Alces machlis), 
several species of bird, one of fish (Plewronectes), and several 
species of shell fish (Ostrea edulis, C ardium edule, Mytilus edults, 
Littorina littorea, Scrobicularia piperata, etc. ) 


16 HUMAN ORIGINS 


GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION OF AZILIAN, TARDENOISIAN, AND 
MAGLEMOSEAN CULTURES 


Azilian-Tardenoisian culture has been found in all three conti- 
nents of the Old World. Although its geographic distribution in 
detail does not coincide with any one of the Paleolithic cultures, 
it more nearly follows Magdalenian lines than any other. The 



























































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































Fic. 262. MaAp SHOWING THE GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION IN EUROPE OF THE AZILIAN, 
TARDENOISIAN, AND MAGLEMOSEAN CULTURES, 


Azilian and Tardenoisian races did not suffer from the glacial 
handicap and, therefore, spread northward into Scotland and Den- 
mark (where their culture is known as Maglemosean), thus achiev- 
ing a greater latitudinal extension than any of their predecessors. 
They roamed at will over Africa and left traces in Asia*® as far east 
as India. Switzerland was inhabited; but with exception of the 
Crimea, no stations have been reported from southeastern Europe 
(Fig. 262). The European localities may be tabulated as follows, 
the type of culture being represented by the initial letter in paren- 
thesis. 


6 Mesopotamia, the foothills of the Vindhya Mountains (pygmy flints) in 
Central India, and Banda (pygmy flints) and Mirzapur in Madras Presidency. 


THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION 17 
EuROPEAN DISTRIBUTION OF TRANSITIONAL CULTURES 


EUROPE 


Belgium 
Brabant.—Zonhoven (A and T). 
Chaleux.—Cave of Baleux (4). 
Liége.—Remouchamps (A-T). 
Namur.—Le Chéne (4); Le Sureau (4). 


Denmark 


Island of Zealand.—Holmegaard (M); Mullerup (two stations) 
(M); Svaerdborg (/). 


England 


Kent.—Kitchen middens at Seven Oaks (T). 
Lancashire.—Peat bogs in the eastern part (A-T). 
Somerset.—Aveline’s Hole (A). 

Yorkshire—Peat bog at Hornsea (T); Victoria cave (A). 


France 

Ain.—Sous-Sac (A). 

Aisne.—Fere-en-Tardenois (T). 

Ariége.—Mas d’Azil (4); Massat (4); Montfort (4) ; La Vache 
CA). 

Aude.—La Crouzade (A). 

Cote d’Or.—Le Poron des Cueches (T). 

Dordogne.—Laugerie-Basse (La Grange and Marseilles) (A); 
Longueroche (A); La Madeleine (according to de Mortillet) (A) ; 
La Mouthe (A). 

Dréme.—Bobache and six other stations reported by H. Muller 
(A). 

Fimstére.—Kitchen middens of La Torche (T). 

Gard.—Labric (A). 

Gironde.—Littoral of the Medoc (A) (according to Lalanne). 

Haute-Garonne.—Gourdan (4); Lespugue (Grotte des Harpons) 
(A) ; La Tourrasse (A). 

Hautes-Pyrénées.—Lorthet (A); Lourdes (A). 

Haute-Savoie-—Sur-Balme at Veyrier (explored by Reber) (4). 

Landes.—Sordes (A). 


18 HUMAN ORIGINS 


Loiret—Le Muids (according to Breuil) (4). 

Lot.—Les Cambous (4); Le Pouzats at Reilhac (4); Roussignol 
BY. 

Savoie.—Grande-Gave (A). 

Seime-et-Marne.—Beauregard (T). 

Valley of the Somme.—Bois de Champien (T) ; Bois du Brtle near 
Ercheu (4); Bois du Glandon (4) ; Haute-Barne in Beaulieu (T). 


Germany 


Baden.—Cave of Istein (4) and Kleinkems (4), both reported by 
Mieg. 

Bavaria.—Grosse Ofnet (A-T) ; Hohlerfels near Neuremberg (4) ; 
Kauffertsberg near Ludheim (A-T); vicinity of Neustadt (reported 
by Mehlis) (4). 

Saxe-M einingen.—Cave of Wuste Scheuer near Dobritz (according 
to R. R. Schmidt) (4-T). 

Westphalia.—Balver and Martin’s cave near Letmathe (according 
to Re Re Schmidt) 2421): 


Poland 


Tardenoisian said to be abundant. 


Portugal 


Valley of the Mugem.—Cabeco da Arruda and several other kitchen 
middens (7). 


Russia 


Crimea.—Kaba cave (A). 


Scotland 


Argyllshire —Rock shelter of Druimvargie (4) ; Oban caves: Dis- 
tillery, Gas Works, MacArthur, MacKay (A); Island of Oronsay, 
shell mound known as Caisteal-nan-Gillean (4). 


Spain 
Albacete.—Alpera (T). 
Asturias —La Paloma (A); La Riera (4) ; Sofoxo (A). 
Guadalajara.—Environs of Aguilar de Anguita and Alcolea del 
Piviat (lays 
Oviedo.—Quintanal (A). 


a 


THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION 19 


Santander.—Castillo (4) ; La Hermida, open-air station, valley of 
the Deva (4); El Pendo (A); Rascafio (A) ; Valle (4); Villanueva 
boan), 

Viscaya.—Balzola (A). 


Switzerland 


Basle-—Environs of Basle (according to Sarasin) (4); Bellerive 
near Delémont (4); Birseck (4). 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


Coutit, L., ‘‘Tardenoisien, Captien, Gétulien, Ibero-Maurusien, etc.,’’ 
CIA, 14th session, 1, 301-336 (Geneva, 1912). 

Har_&é, Edouard, ‘‘Restes d’élan et de lion dans une station pré- 
historique de transition entre le Quaternaire et les temps actuels 
a Saint-Martory (Haute-Garonne),” Anthr. v, 402-406 (1894). 

JOHANSEN, K. F. (with K. Jessen and H. Winge), ‘Une station du plus 
ancien Age de la pierre dans la tourbiére de Svaerdborg,”’ Mém. 
Soc. des antiquatres du Nord, N. S., 241-359 (1918-1919). 

Lequeux, Léon, “Stations tardenoisiennes des vallées de 1’Ambleve, de 
la Vesdre, et de l’Ourthe,”’ 91 pp., com. to the Soc. d’Anthr. de 
Bruxelles (Mar. 4, 1923). 

Mortitiet, A. de, “Les petits silex taillés 4 contour géométrique 
trouvés en Europe, Asie, et Afrique,” REA, vi, 376-405 (1896). 
OctToBon, Capt., ‘‘La question tardenoisienne. Ateliers des buttes de 
sable prés de la ferme Montbani (commune de Mont-Notre-Dame, 

Aisne),”’ RA, xxx, 107-123 (1920). 

—, “La question tardenoisienne. Etude détaillée de Voutillage,”’ 
BSPF, xx, 126-140 (1923). 

Piette, Edouard, “Etudes d’ethnographie préhistorique,”” Anthr., vi, 
276-292 (1895); vii, 1-17, 309, 385-427 (1896); xiv, 641-653 
(1903). 

—., “Hiatus et lacune.—Vestiges de la période de transition dans la 
grotte du Mas d’Azil,” BSA, 4th ser., vi, 235-267 (1895). 

Rauir, E.. “L’habitat tardenoisien des grottes de Remouchamps, 
Chaleux, et Montaigle; l’industrie tardenoisienne et son évolution 
en Belgique,” BSAB, xxxv (1920). 

Saint-PErRIER, R. de, “Le burin tardenoisien,” RA, xxxii, 314-321 
(1922). 

SARASIN, F., “Les galets coloriés de la grotte de Birseck prés Bale,” 
CIA, 14th session i 566-571 (Geneva, 1912). 


20 HUMAN ORIGINS 


Sarauw, G. F. L., ‘Sur les trouvailles faites dans le nord de l'Europe 
datant de la Benes dite de l’hiatus,’’ CPF, 1st session, 244-248 
(Périgueux, 1905). 

—, ‘‘Maglemose. Ein steinzeitlicher Wohnplatz im Ne bei 
Mullerup auf Seeland, verglichen mit verwandten Funden”’ 
(trans. from Danish by Ilse Much), PZ, iti, 52-104 (1911). 

VEGA DEL SELLA, Conde de, “El Asturiense, nueva industria pre- 
neolitica,’’? CIPP, Mem. No. 32, 56 pp. (1923). 

HIELLE, Edmund, “Pointes de fléches typiques de Fére-en Tardenois 
(Aisne),’” BSA, 4th ser., 1, 959-964 (1890). 





GE PO CAR Be. 
THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD 


The Neolithic Period was at first and is still often referred to, 
especially by the French, as the age of polished stone implements. 
From this expression, however, it should not be inferred that dur- 
ing the period in gtestion all stone implements were fashioned 
by polishing. Certain kinds of stone intended for special purposes 
were polished in Paleolithic times, but the polishing was not a part 
of the shaping process (Vol. I, p. 156). On the other hand, even 
during the first part of the Neolithic Period, polishing as a shaping 
process in the stone industry was comparatively rare, while the use 
of chipped stone implements persisted throughout the period. Cer- 
tain types of stone tools, such as simple blades, scrapers, spoke- 
shaves, points, microliths, etc., which appeared first in the Paleo- 
lithic Period, were carried over into the new era, often without 
marked change of form. The same may be said of the flat harpoon 
of staghorn which characterized the Azilian Epoch. On the basis 
of lithic industry alone, therefore, and in the absence of certain 
forms, it is sometimes difficult to differentiate between an early 
Neolithic and a late Paleolithic site. In other, and important, 
respects the two periods are as different as two successive ages 
could well be. 

Many factors contributed to the change. New conditions arose 
and were met in new ways. The gradual change of climate from 
cold and dry to warm and humid was linked with a change of 
fauna and flora. Among the faunal remains there are no fossil 
species in the strict sense since the Neolithic Period belongs to the 
geologic recent. The relative security of Paleolithic cave life led 
by degrees to the increase of the population; this in turn gave rise 
to a division of labor out of which new needs arose. The twofold 
increase in numbers and in needs was a greater draft than any 
mere hunter stage of civilization could stand. Hence the disap- 

21 


22 HUMAN ORIGINS 


pearance of troglodyte art and of the belief in its talismanic efficacy 
was followed closely by the domestication of animals and plants. 

Thus to Neolithic man belongs the credit of inaugurating on 
an appreciable scale the conservation of natural resources, to which, 
more than to anything else, all subsequent progress has been, and 
will continue to be due. While by no means giving up his quest 
for food in the sea, forest, or stream, man was no longer in a 
position of dependence upon such sources. Whether or not the 
art of domestication came with invading hosts from the east is not 
so important as the fact that it came. 

The control of the food supply made village life possible, and 
this, in turn, led to societal organization, without the discipline of 
which such important works as fortifications, megalithic monu- 
ments, lake villages, etc., could never have been consummated. 
Caves and rock shelters were not wholly abandoned as places of 
habitation, but they- were more and more diverted to special uses, 
such, for example, as communal sepultures. 

It is now established that the cult of the dead, the funeral rite, 
antedates Neolithic times, but the number of authentic Paleolithic 
burials is not large. The Neolithic peoples disposed of their dead 
in a variety of ways. In the first place, there was the simple burial 
in the earth, without protecting envelope of an enduring nature. 
Natural caves were converted into burial chambers; artificial caves 
were employed in the same way, as were also the dolmens and the 
much less pretentious stone cists. Inhumation remained the domi- 
nant mode, but incineration was also practiced to some extent in 
France, Germany, and Switzerland. 

With the growth of communal life the need of receptacles for 
containing and storing both liquids and solids would make itself 
increasingly felt. To meet this need there were called forth the 
ceramic and the textile arts, both of which have counted for much 
in human comfort and in the cultivation of the esthetic sense in 
all subsequent ages. Through these new channels it was possible 
once more to give expression to the innate feeling for art which 
in previous ages had been so well and realistically expressed under 
different conditions. 

The healing art might have had its beginnings at an earlier 
age; at all events considerable progress was recorded during the 


THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD 23 


Neolithic Period, especially in surgery. In boldness, skill in execu- 
tion, and successful outcome, some of the Neolithic trepanations 
would be a credit even to a modern practitioner. 

It is not definitely known just when the art of navigation had 
its birth; we do know, however, that Neolithic achievement in this 
direction was by no means unimportant. 


NEOLITHIC CHRONOLOGY 


Scandinavia 


Various attempts have been made to establish a relative chronol- 
ogy for Neolithic times. Some seem to hold good for the countries 
in which they were developed, but when an attempt is made to 
adapt them to other regions, serious difficulties arise. The Scandi- 
navian system is perhaps the best known. With respect to it 
Montelius of Stockholm and Miiller of Copenhagen are in practical 
accord. In its main features the system is as follows: 


1. Epoch of the kitchen middens. The industry includes chipped 
stone implements, pottery made of an extremely crude paste which 
contained much pulverized granite, and articles of bone and staghorn. 
Perforated teeth were used as ornaments. 

2. Epoch of the pointed and the flat-poled ax or hatchet. This 
second epoch is characterized by two types of the polished stone ax, 
one with a pointed pole and the two convex sides meeting everywhere 
along the periphery, the other with a thin, flat pole and the two broad 
sides meeting only at the cutting edge. These two chief hatchet forms, 
with their variations, were not the only artifacts belonging to the 
middle stone epoch; spear points, arrowheads, and knives of flint 
abound. One of the chief ornaments was amber. 

3. Epoch of the stone graves. ‘This epoch is noted for beautifully 
chipped implements of flint, the most characteristic being the thick- 
poled ax or hatchet. Axes of stone other than flint, with perforation 
for hafting, are plentiful. Chisels, saws, punches, knives, hammers, 
skull crushers, spearheads, poniards, etc., abound. Well preserved 
specimens of pottery show a marked improvement in the ceramic art. 
This epoch admits of a subdivision into four phases characterized by: 
(a) simple dolmens, (b) many-chambered dolmens, (c) stone cists, 
and (d) individual graves. 


24 HUMAN ORIGINS 


Epoch of the Kitchen Middens.—Scandinavia is of more than 
usual interest to the prehistorian. Rich in remains of the Neolithic 
Period and of the Bronze and Iron Ages, the region has been studied 
with a thoroughness that has led to far-reaching results. It will 
be recalled that Thomsen, the founder of prehistoric archeology, 
was a Dane. Thomsen was fortunate in his contemporaries and 
immediate successors. He found a ready and powerful advocate 
in Nilsson, professor of zoology in the University of Lund, Sweden, 
who likened the northern stone artifacts to the tools and weapons 
of living savage races. ‘Thomsen’s assistant, and afterwards his 
successor as director of the Copenhagen Museum, Worsaae was 
the first to announce the real significance of the so-called kjokken- 
moddinger or kitchen middens. These had hitherto been looked 
upon as natural beach formations, dating from a time when the 
sea level in northern Denmark was many feet higher than at 
present. 

Being formed (as was supposed) by the waves, these kitchen 
middens were studied by Forchhammer, the geologist; containing 
remains of a recent fauna, they attracted the attention of Steen- 
strup, the zodlogist; and containing stone implements, they came 
within the province of the young archeologist, Worsaae. In 1850, 
after an official tour of some of the kitchen middens where he had 
excellent opportunities to observe fresh sections, Worsaae recorded 
in his notebook these words: “One might almost think these heaps 
were the places where the people of the neighborhood, in that far- 
off time, took their meals, as witness, for example, the potsherds, 
charcoal, bones of. animals, and stone implements.” He added, 
with caution: “This is, of course, mere conjecture, and should 
be treated as such.” Before the close of that year, however, 
further investigation established the truth of Worsaae’s conjecture. 
At the beginning of the year 1851 this important discovery was 
formally announced before the Academy of Sciences by Steen- 
strup, and before the Archeological Society by Worsaae himslf. 

The principal constituents of the kitchen middens are shells 
of the oyster (Ostrea edulis) and the cockle (Cardium edule). 
Mytilus edulis, Littorina littorea, and Nassa reticulata are also 
abundant. The bones of the sole, torsk, herring, eel, duck, goose, 
swan, sea gull, etc., are not uncommon. Mammals are represented 


THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD the 


by the stag, roebuck, Sus, Bos primigenius, bear, wolf, beaver, 
wildcat, etc. Steenstrup’s investigations prove that the oldest in- 
dustry was contemporaneous with the fir tree and the pine in 
Denmark. The oak had just made its appearance. The pine 
must have been abundant, for the bones of the black cock are 
numerous, and it fed principally on the pine. No reindeer bones, 
nor bones of any domestic animal except the dog, have been 
found in Danish kitchen middens. Stones forming hearths and 
bearing marks of fire occur at various levels in these deposits. 
Oysters were roasted in the fire, and bones were heated to render 
the marrow more easily removable. No marrowbone was wasted; 
all were broken in a uniform manner and by a single stroke. Imple- 
ments of stone, bone, and staghorn are often very abundant. The 
number of artifacts in the great kitchen midden at Meilgaard has 
been estimated at 103,400, or nearly two for every cubic foot of the 
mass. 

On account of the change of land level in northern Denmark 
and the consequent drying up of bays and arms of the sea, many 
kitchen middens are now some distance from the coast. A reverse 
movement has taken place along the southern shores of Denmark, 
where the sea has encroached on the land so that the kitchen mid- 
dens are usually at the water’s edge, and even hidden beneath 
shallow waters to be laid bare only at low tide. Destructible ma- 
terials, such as bone, shell, and pottery, are of course wanting, 
but hearthstones and flint implements are strewn along the beaches. 
Further proof of a subsidence is furnished in the unearthing of 
undisturbed stations in protected spots, at a depth of several feet 
below the present water level. 

Stations of the same age as the kitchen middens are found 
inland on the shores of fresh-water lakes, or on their islands, where 
they have been preserved by a rise of the water level. These old 
habitations of the earliest occupants of the country were first 
covered by water; later the lakes were converted into peat bogs. 
By the present-day harvesting of peat these stations come to light. 
Again, during an unusually dry season stations are uncovered in 
lake beds that are not yet wholly dried up. 

Following the discoveries made in Denmark, kitchen middens 
have been found in many parts of the world, especially on the 


26 HUMAN ORIGINS 


coasts of France, Portugal, Japan, and America. The Danish 
kitchen middens are not the oldest of the period, but nowhere do 
kitchen middens antedate the post-Pleistocene. 

The various forms of stone implements belonging to the kit- 
chen-midden period depend essentially on the nature of flint and 
the method of working it. If a nodule of flint receives a diagonal 
blow against the surface near an edge or margin, a flake is re- 
moved, leaving a single surface of fracture. The careful removal 
of a few such chips leaves a core, or nucleus, with a more or less 
uniform series of surfaces. From such a block the workman can 
remove either discoidal or laminate flakes, depending on the regu- 
larity and form of the nuclear facets. 

The places of habitation abound in flint chips of every con- 
ceivable shape which show traces of having seen service. Many 
bear only slight marks of special adaptation to the uses they served; 
sometimes an edge or point that could have cut the fingers is 
removed, or a desired edge or point is produced without materially 
altering the original chip. These makeshifts for tools, while 
abundant, are less important than the implements formed on regular 
patterns and destined for specific purposes. 

The first and foremost need was for a cutting tool. This was 
to be had in the bladelike flint flake, either just as it came from 
the parent core, or retouched at the end, or at the end and along 
one edge. But, being bow-shaped, the flint flake could not well 
be used for cutting in the direction of its long axis. These limita- 
tions, combined with brittleness, made it necessary constantly to 
replace dulled and broken flakes by new ones. ‘They are con- 
sequently the most numerous of all implements of this epoch. 

Large discoidal flakes were used in the manufacture of a char- 
acteristic wedge-shaped implement which, for the want of a better 
name, we shall call a paring knife. The edge, being formed by 
two surfaces that diverge at an agle of 30° or 40°, is capable of 
much hard service. Striz at right angles to the edge are often 
observable under the magnifying glass. These paring knives were 
hafted and used as hatchets. 

The workmen of the time were ingenious. They not only 
utilized the irregular discoidal flakes in the manufacture of the 
useful hatchet, but also knew how to convert a long, delicate, lami- 


THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD Ze 


nate flint“flake into a number of diminutive, hatchet-shaped arrow 
points. One of these was found in a peat bog still attached to its 
shaft. They may have been used for other purposes also. 

The hatchets and adzes of this early period were represented 
by chipped flints, the lateral margins of the two surfaces meeting 
everywhere at the periphery. The lateral margins of the hatchet 
were in the same plane as the longest diameter, while those of 
the adze were always slightly inclined to the plane of the longest 
diameter. 

Judging from the abundance of the fragments, pottery must 
have been in common use, though no complete vessel has yet been 
found dating from the kitchen-midden epoch. The principal forms 
were jars, with flat or pointed bottoms, and bowls, all made of 
an extremely crude paste containing much pulverized granite. The 
upper border was sometimes decorated with a series of gashes or 
imprints. 

Northern and eastern Scandinavia were not settled so early as 
Denmark. The first settlements (kitchen-midden) must have begun 
some six or seven thousand years ago, and the epoch may have 
lasted two thousand years. During this epoch, stone implements 
were not polished. Even during the two succeeding epochs, polish- 
ing was confined chiefly to edged tools, all others being chipped 
only. 

Epoch of the Pointed and Flat-Poled Ax or Hatchet.—The 
polished ax, with pointed pole and the two convex surfaces meet- 
ing along the lateral margins and the edge, belongs exclusively to 
the second epoch. It is derived from the unpolished ax of the 
earlier period, and has an almost unlimited habitat, not being con- 
fined to Scandinavia, or even to Europe. All subsequent types are 
more and more limited geographically, until the most recent are 
confined to Scandinavia. 

The other characteristic type of this epoch, the ax with thin, 
flat pole, is derived from the ax with pointed pole and is the most 
widely disseminated of all purely northern forms. It is sometimes 
found in the stone graves and therefore marks the close of the 
second phase (Fig. 263). 

In addition to these two types of the ax or hatchet, there are 
spearheads and arrow points without notches or barbs at the base, 


28 HUMAN 


ORIGINS 


and poniards, like the spearheads, with a broad squarely cut or 





SS 


= 


——s 
—— 











SS 























Sey yy 
See 




















ESS 














Fic. 263. FLINT AX WITH FLAT 
POLE FROM MOGENSTRUP, 
DENMARK. 


rounded shaft end. 

Amber is often found in clay or 
wooden vessels. It is one of the chief 
ornaments of the period. The pieces 
were sometimes used in the rough, with 
a simple hole pierced for the passage of 
the string. A necklace consisted of one 
or many strings of amber beads. 

Epoch of the Stone Graves.—Scan- 
dinavia’s most imposing prehistoric re- 
mains are, without question, the stone 
burial chambers which, as has already 
been said, characterize the third or clos- 
ing epoch of the Neolithic Period. Their 
peculiar forms, the size of the stones 
used, the picturesqueness they lend to 
the landscape, all combine to invest them 


Axes of this type characterize 
the second epoch of the Neolithic 
Period in Scandinavia. Scale, 3. 
After Nordman. 


with a perennial 
and universal in- 
terest. Until re- 
cently they were looked upon as altar and 
temple sites. We now know them to be 
funerary chambers. 

The simplest dolmen* is that formed of 
four stones for the four walls and one for 
the covering or roof (Fig. 264). While a 
chamber could be formed of three upright 
stones, it would hardly be worth while, as 
so much space would be lost in the corners. 
The three-cornered chamber, in fact, does not 
exist. The four-sided rectangular chamber, 
on the contrary, is the most numerous and 
widely distributed of all northern construc- 
tions, Itis generally 152: tos2J13-inetercens 
to 7 feet) long, and from 0.61 to 1.07 meters 
(2 to 3.5 feet) wide. The height varies from 







sens ~ 
yd 
em ewew ee eeecte: 


ay 


be 
ve 





Fic. 264. GROUND PLAN 

OF A SMALL DOLMEN AT 

VOLLERUP, MOEN ISLAND, 
DENMARK. 


This is the simplest 
type of dolmen or funer- 
ary chamber; it charac- 
terizes an early phase of 
the third epoch of. the 
Neolithic Period in Scan- 
dinavia. The structure 
consists of four stones for 
the walls and one for the 
roof. After Miller, 


1A Breton word applied to burial chambers of stone (see Vol. II, p. 111). 


THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD 29 


0.92 to 1.52 meters (3 to 5 feet). One of the end stones serves as a 
door, and it is a little shorter than the other three. The door may 
consist of two stones, but 
this does not alter the 
shape of the chamber. 

The five-sided dolmen 
is rare. The six-sided dol- 
men is very common. If 
there is a longest diameter 
to the hexagonal chamber, 
it is the one in the direc- 
tion of the entrance. The 
small dolmens were al- 
ways covered by tumuli 
of earth and stones which 
served to strengthen the 
structure and protect it in 
every way. 

Dolmens set in exca- 
vations are the exception. 
In all the four-, five-, and 
six-cornered dolmens, the 
roofing stone is visible 
above the tumulus of 
earth. This horizontal 
stone was always thick, 
with convex upper sur- 
face, much heavier than 
would be necessary as a 
simple covering of the 
chamber or even as a sup- 





port for an overlying yg, 265. A TUMULUS NEAR OLSTYKKE, DEN- 
tumulus. They were evi- MARK, COVERING TWO DOLMENS, AND A 


dently i nten d e d £6 be NEARER VIEW OF ONE OF THE DOLMENS. 
visible from the very first. 

To protect the entrance from the encroaching earth, two stones 
were sometimes set up at the sides of the door, A _ horizontal 
stone was often placed over the two upright stones, thus forming a 


Photographs by the author. 


30 HUMAN ORIGINS 


sort of vestibule nearest the entrance where the heap of earth 
would be highest and most likely to obstruct passage. A long 
vestibule (allée couverte) leading to the door formed a still better 
protection. Such chambers were covered, either by a round or by a 
long tumulus. 

The round tumulus is rather flat, covering only the sides of the 
chamber, and generally 9.1 to 12.2 meters (30 to 40 feet) in 
diameter, rarely 18.3 meters (60 feet). It is usually surrounded 
by a circle of large stones, placed a meter or so (a few feet) apart, 
simply indicating the limits of the monument. The long tumulus 
is also low, seldom more than 1.5 or 2 meters (5 to 6 feet) high, 
from 6 to 9 meters (20 to 30 feet) wide, and 15 to 30 meters 
(50 to 100 feet) long, and is surrounded by a rectangular enclosure 
of stones set a meter or more apart. | 

The dolmens in these two forms of tumuli are the same. The 
long tumuli are common burial places. One tumulus was made to 
cover several dolmens, and if more dolmens were needed, the 
area of the tumulus was increased correspondingly (Fig. 265). 
The oldest graves of the Stone Age are the small dolmens found 
in the round and long tumuli (in Great Britain called round 
barrows and long barrows). 

The small dolmens of the early type may be traced over prac- 
tically the whole of Europe, as well as parts of Africa and Asia. 
The stone at the entrance is often perforated with a round or 
square hole, or there may be two doorstones, each contributing half 
the opening. Such openings are common to dolmens in France 
(Fig. 266), England, Crimea, Caucasus, Palestine, India, and 
Sweden, but are not found in Denmark. 

The large, many-chambered dolmens are confined to western 
and northern Europe and belong to a later epoch. These are 
usually called giant chambers or megalithic monuments. They 
include all dolmens of more than six sides, more than one roofing 
stone, and one or many chambers. The nature of the material 
had then, as now, much influence on the form and disposition of 
the structure. The width of the chambers could not be greater 
than the greatest length of the stones at hand, as it was necessary 
for the cover stones to reach from one side to the other. The 
side stones were so placed as to incline gently inward and naturally 


THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD ot 


supported each other. The roofing stones held them still more 
firmly together. The chinks between sides and roof were usually 
stopped with small stones. 

One weak point in the building was the foundation. Excava- 
tions were rarely made, the dolmens being built, as a rule, on the 
natural surface of the ground. Space was economized by turning 
the flatter surface of the side stones inward. Once in a while a 
great boulder was split in order to obtain a flat surface where 





Fic. 266. DOLMEN OF TRIE-CHATEAU, OISE, FRANCE. 


The small stone forming the door to the chamber is pierced with a round hole. 


none existed before; beyond that, there was no splitting or hewing 
of the stones. Mortar was not known, but the artisans of the time 
understood the impervious character of loam, which was used in 
covering the whole structure, particularly in stopping leaks between 
the roof and sides. The floors were of loam as well as of rubble 
and flagstones. The interior of the giant chambers was never less 
than 1.2 nor more than 2.2 meters (4 to 7 feet) in height. The 
length of the vestibule depended on the size of the tumulus, its 
purpose being to insure passage to the chamber. Vestibules 4.6 


32 HUMAN ORIGINS 


meters (15 feet) long were not uncommon, and some were even 
longer. 

Although the roofing stones of some giant dolmens are visible, 
the tumuli are, on the whole, much more pronounced than are those 
of the earlier small dolmens. The tumulus is generally round 
(Fig. 267); in rare instances it is long, and surrounded by a 
rectangular enclosure of large stones. Where the chamber is com- 





Fic. 267. TUMULUS COVERING A GIANT DOLMEN AT ULSTYKKE, ZEALAND, DENMARK. 
The entrance is hidden by bushes. In dolmens of this type, which were common 

burial places, many skeletons are found in disorderly heaps, sometimes covering the floor 

to a depth of four feet. Photograph by the author. 

pletely covered with earth, the tumulus is always round, the height 

being from 3 to 4.6 meters (10 to 15 feet) and the diameter as 

much as 27.5 meters (90 feet). 

The giant dolmens were numerous and widely disseminated. 
Many have been demolished, the stones being carried off for con- 
struction of fences and houses; others are still hidden underneath 
more or less prominent tumuli. Some of the dolmens are double, 
with separate vestibules, built, it may be, at one time, or possibly 
a portion at a time. Again, the need of enlargement was met by 


THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD 33 


additional chambers reached through one of the existing chambers. 

The giant dolmens of Denmark are strikingly uniform, the 
greatest diameter of the chamber being always at right angles to 
the entrance. This may be called the northern type in contradis- 
tinction to the type of other lands (Fig. 268). In Great Britain 
a single long entrance leads to a series of chambers connected by 
short passageways. Such a giant dolmen was naturally covered 





FiG. 268. GROUND PLAN OF A GIANT DOLMEN OF THE NORTHERN TYPE AT GUNDESTRUP- 
GAARD, JUTLAND, DENMARK. 


Dolmens of this type invariably have the length of the principal chamber at right 
angles to the entrance. The small chambers were set apart for the use of a single sex or a 
single family. After Miller. 


by a long, oval tumulus, called in England the long barrow. The 
roof is also sometimes constructed differently. Instead of the flat 
roof, there may be an arched one, composed of horizontal, over- 
lapping stones, a construction evidently of later date than the flat 
roof. The arched roof is also common to Ireland, the most re- 
markable chamber of this sort being at New Grange, near Drog- 
heda. <A long entrance way pierces the round tumulus at New 
Grange, leading to a great chamber in the form of a cross over 


34 HUMAN ORIGINS 


whose center rises an arch to the height of 3.4 meters (11 feet). 
The tumulus is about 91.5 meters (300 feet) in diameter, and 
the entrance is 18.3 meters (60 feet) long. 

In the giant dolmens the human remains are heaped on the 
floor of the chambers to a depth of from a few centimeters to 
more than a meter (few inches to several feet). They sometimes 
cover the entire floor and even encroach on the entrance way for a 
considerable distance; again they are found in isolated heaps only. 
The bones usually lie in such disorder as to render it impossible 
to bring together those of any particular skeleton. Through the 
mass of human bones are strewn in purposeless fashion fragments 
of man’s handiwork. The necessity of making successive burials 
in a limited space was the probable cause of the disorderly arrange- 
ment of bones and artifacts, the earlier remains being shoved aside 
to make room for later burials. The earlier deposited funerary 
objects suffered the same fate. The few undisturbed skeletons 
are, without exception, in positions where the necessity of dis- 
turbing them would be least likely to arise. A chamber may con- 
tain from twenty or thirty to one hundred skeletons, including 
those of both sexes, adults and children; it served all the inhabitants 
of a limited area. Some chambers were set apart for one sex only, 
or for a single family. Each dolmen probably continued in use 
for a considerable period of time. 

The deposit of bones, etc., was covered by a layer of stones or 
crushed flint. This protective layer, sometimes 61 centimeters (2 
feet) thick, rarely consists of a mixture of earth and stones. Not 
infrequently a deposit of loam is found, either immediately on the 
mass of bones or covering the protective layer of stones or crushed 
flint. Where there are isolated heaps of bones in the same cham- 
ber, one may be covered with flat stones and another with crushed 
flint. The protective layer never completely filled the chamber. 
Stones and earth might filter through and fill the space thus left, 
but such infiltrations need never be mistaken for the protective 
layer. The space thus filled in above the protective covering was 
frequently utilized during the succeeding Bronze Age as a resting 
place for mortuary urns. 

Objects found in a giant chamber are not strictly contem- 
poraneous, as are those from the grave of a single person, but 





THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD oS 


they are the best chronometers we have of that period of the Stone 
Age to which they belong. A large dolmen will contain, on an 
average, twenty or thirty stone hatchets and chisels and as many 
arrowheads. ‘The flint chips are more numerous. Pottery, both 
whole and in fragments, is abundant, and it is of special interest 
on account of the style of ornamentation. Objects of bone and 
horn are also found. The funerary objects are both new and old; 
some are even unfinished, others restored, resharpened, etc. The 
dead probably received his own belongings, whether they had ever 
seen use or not. The practice of “killing” (breaking) all funerary 
objects was evidently not in vogue among the Northmen of this 
period. 

The monumental burial chambers already described in detail 
are the best index of the occupation of the country toward the 
close of the Neolithic Period. Many of these monuments have 
been destroyed, in prehistoric as well as historic times, yet the num- 
ber still existing is very great. Petersen’s estimate for the Island 
of Zealand alone is placed at 3,400, or about twenty-seven to the 
square mile. They are most abundant where erratic blocks of the 
desired size are most plentiful. In choosing dolmen sites preference 
was also given to productive areas. They generally lie in, or 
adjacent to, arable and pasture lands. About four thousand ancient 
monuments have been set aside as belonging to the Government of 
Denmark; Norway and Sweden have similar laws in force. 

With increasing knowledge of agriculture and the domestica- 
tion of animals, the people were no longer dependent on hunting 
and fishing, as they had been during the earlier kitchen-midden 
epoch. To the dog, the sole domestic animal of the earlier period, 
were added the cow, sheep, hog, goat, and horse. Various grains, 
chiefly wheat and barley, have recently been discovered accidentally 
encased in the paste of which some of the Neolithic pottery was 
made. 

As the northern Stone Age is divided into three successive 
epochs, namely, that of the kitchen middens, of the pointed-poled 
and the flat-poled ax, and of stone graves, so the last of these 
three epochs may be subdivided into three successive phases, each 
characterized by a peculiar type of tomb. Two of these forms, 
the small dolmen and the large or many-chambered dolmen, have 


36 HUMAN ORIGINS 


already been described. ‘There remains the latest group, consisting 
of two types, (1) stone cists and (2) individual graves. These, 
being built of small stones and covered by flat mounds of earth, 
long escaped notice; yet they form an important link in the series 
and mark the transition from Stone Age to Bronze Age burials. 

Stone cists are made of comparatively thin, flat stones split for 
the purpose. The dimensions of a cist are modest in comparison 
with those of the megalithic monument, it being about 2.5 to 3 
meters (8 to 10 feet) long, with a width and depth of less than a 
meter (2 feet wide, and 2 or 3 feet deep). Cists were built with 
less care than were the other dolmens, but the effects of faulty con- 
struction here would not be so disastrous as in the structures built 
of larger stones. The cist was first covered with a heap of stones, 
which was, in turn, buried beneath a mound of earth that seldom 
attained a height of 3 meters (10 feet) above the general level. 
A monumental circle of stones is never found around mounds 
enclosing cists. Access to a cist was gained by digging down 
through the mound and removing one or more of the roofing 
stones. There was usually a sort of false door at one end of the 
cist, a survival from the elaborate gangways to the dolmens, but 
it served no practical purpose. A cist contained from one to eleven 
skeletons. The disturbed condition of the bones where several 
skeletons are found in one cist indicates that the interments were ° 
not all made at the same time. Junerary objects are rare—a 
poniard, spearhead, battle-ax, a few arrow points, and, rarely, a 
piece of pottery. 

Closely related to the stone cists, and belonging to the very 
close of the Stone Age, are the individual graves. These are even 
less conspicuous than the cists, and, as their name suggests, they 
never contain more than a single skeleton, which rests on a floor 
of loam or stone and is surrounded by a number of stones and 
simply covered by earth. Such burials are in, or under, low, flat 
mounds. The perforated celt or battle-ax is the usual accompani- 
ment; to this may be added a spearhead or a poniard. A neck- 
lace of amber sometimes marks the grave of a female. Pottery 
is rare. 

Reference has been made to the flat-poled ax, which is charac- 
teristic of the second period of the Stone Age. The most abundant 


THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD 37 


implement of the third or stone-grave epoch, is the thick-poled ax 
(Fig. 269). It is almost always of flint. The sides are narrow, 
and almost parallel, except near the edge. The pattern varies 
within certain limits. They were hafted as axes or hatchets when 
the sides were alike, and as adzes when one side was flatter than the 
other, or even concave. We 
find the same variations in the 
series of chisels and gouges. 
Sehested of Denmark dem- 
onstrated the efficiency of Stone 
Age tools by building himself 
a blockhouse? at Broholm, 
Funen, using only flint imple- 
ments. Within ten hours, and 
with one polished ax which did 
not require _ resharpening, 
twenty-six pine trecs, averag- 
ing 20 centimeters (8 inches) 
in diameter, were felled and 
topped. The house complete 


mn 


a 
bs a i, 













3 ee a 
SSS 
HZ, ——S SS SS 
ct Be Sp ~~ Soe Wis 





——— 


SS if yy 
SS 
SSS SS = 
SS 
= =. 


z= ee : 3 









pay 


ays ip 


Fic. 269. THICK-POLED FLINT AXES FROM 


(with door, window, and roof ) 
was finished in sixty-six days. 
For the felling of trees the 


DENMARK. 


This type of flint ax, which occurs in the 
dolmens, belongs to the third or stone-grave 


epoch of the Neolithic Period. When the 


sides were alike these implements were hafted 
as axes; when one side was flatter than the 
other, they were used as adzes. Scale, }. 
After Miller. 


polished ax was much superior 
to one unpolished. Neverthe- 
less, many forms of chipped 
implements remained in use, as, for instance, the flint flake, the 
saw made of a flake, the punch, scraper, etc. » The saws that are 
chipped on both sides, with a well toothed edge and a uniformly 
convex back, belong to the close of the epoch. The convex back 
was fitted into a piece of wood, by means of which the saw was 
held when in use. These saws are seldom found in graves; other- 
wise they are quite common. Sehested employed them effectively 
in building the blockhouse. 

The flint knife shows an evolution parallel to that of the saw. 
It began as a two-edged flint flake. Then one edge was chipped 


2The blockhouse did not appear in central or northern Europe until the 
Hallstatt Epoch; Neolithic house construction was of the palisade type. 


38 HUMAN ORIGINS 


away to form a rounded back, leaving a single cutting edge. Some- 
times there is chipping at the base to form shoulders for hafting. 

While edged tools of flint were either set into, or bound fast to, 
a handle, edged tools of other kinds of stone were perforated for 
hafting. The heavy perforated axes were tools rather than 
weapons. Some have been resharpened so often that little is left 
except the pole and the perforation. This type is very common in 
Scandinavia. 

Another group of axes served as weapons (Fig. 270). They 
are recognized by their elegant form and dull edge; they seldom 
bear evidence of hav- 
ing been sharpened. 
One style is common 
to Denmark and north 
Germany, while an- 
other is found in 
Sweden. The clubs 
and hammers vary as 
much in form as do 
the axes. The older 
grooved clubs were 
used both as war clubs 
and as hammers; the 
later and more elegant 
perforated specimens 
were weapons. 

Spearheads and 
Fic. 270, STONE AXES WHICH WERE USED as_ poniards (or daggers) 

Merioton are much more abun- 








These graceful axes, which belong to the third epoch d | d 
of the Neolithic Period, are found in the graves of war- ant than axes an 


riors. The edges seldom bear evidences of sharpening. war cl 42 
Scale, 4. After Muller. clubs. hey are 


always of ‘flint and 
belong to a limited number of well defined types. The hilt, or shaft 
end, varies so that one cannot always distinguish between the spear 
and the poniard. Those with beautifully chipped handles were, with- 
out doubt, poniards; even the most elegant were real weapons and 
not simply show pieces. They are often repeatedly retouched to a 
new edge, until the blade becomes small in proportion to the hilt. 


THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD 39 


Daggers are so numerous that it must have been the custom to 
carry one always in the belt. Arrow points (like the spearheads) 
were not resharpened; they are always of flint, and vary in form 
from the plain flint flake to the beautiful triangular notched speci- 
mens. Fish nets, fishhooks, and net sinkers have been found in 
peat bogs in such relationship to other objects as to render it 
possible to refer them to the closing epoch of the Stone Age. 

Of clothing nothing has been preserved. Bone points that might 
have been used in punching holes in garments of skin are found 
in the dolmens. Amber continued to be the most highly prized 
ornament. Wooden utensils are rare, having fallen, for the most 
part, to decay. 

Pottery of various forms abounds. There are composite ves- 
sels with the neck sharply defined from the body, vessels with 
covers and with handles, bowls, etc. Many pieces are richly orna- 
mented. The hanging jar is one of the few forms that originated 
in the North. Between the few examples of pottery known to 
belong to the earlier epochs and the great variety to be found in 
the stone-grave epoch, there is a considerable gap. 

The artifacts of the first half of the Neolithic Period bear the 
stamp of utility alone. No thought of pleasing the eye seems to 
have occurred to the workman. That such was not the case dur- 
ing the closing period is particularly evinced in the potter’s art. 
Only the visible parts of a vessel were ornamented. The bottom 
was left plain; so was the interior unless the mouth was flaring. 
Pottery was handmade, being built up by means of spiral bands of 
clay and then smoothed on the surface. Firing generally produced 
a plain black exterior, was not uniform, often poor. The clay was 
at times mixed with pulverized granite. 

The artist preferred a dotted line to a continuous free-hand 
stroke, and heightened the effect by filling in the dots with a white 
substance. Pure linear ornamentation is everywhere dominant dur- 
ing the latter part of the Neolithic Period. This age furnishes no 
representative of the complete human figure; but many seeming 
efforts to reproduce the human features are met with. The re- 
semblance was not intentional, arising rather from a fortuitous 
combination of decorative elements in general use at the time. The 
human features occur only on vessels of a particular type, and 


40 HUMAN ORIGINS 


always on the same place—immediately beneath the upper margin, 
where on other vessels of the same shape the ear is found. The 
artist, seeing the resemblance of the arched prominences to eye- 
brows, added circles for the eyes. . 

Cup-shaped and other lapidarian sculptures have a widespread 
distribution in the Neolithic Period. They are seen on the outer 
as well as on the inner walls of both the small and the giant dol- 
mens. Such markings are also found on stones which were never 
used as building material. They were probably connected with the 
religious beliefs of the time and belong in a group of symbols 
which still signify fruitfulness, good luck, ete. 

Even the art of chipping flint reached the ornamental stage 
and is seen at its best in poniards. The art of polishing was of 
great practical moment, at least, for by it all edged tools were 
sharpened. ‘There are three degrees of polishing: (1) a coarse 
finish extending over the entire surface and leaving whitish streaks, 
or lines, parallel to the length of the implement; (2) a finer polish 
limited to the blade; and (3) a mirrorlike surface at the very 
edge. Sehested produced the coarse polish with a flat piece of 
granite; he finished the blade with sandstone and gave the final 
touches to the edge with a whetstone of slate. It took him about a 
week, working six hours a day, to polish an ax 18 centimeters (7 
inches) long. 

Instead of discarding a dulled or broken implement, the thrifty 
artisans rechipped and repolished it to a fine edge. ‘Tools were 
sharpened over and over again. They went even further and con- 
verted poniard handles into edged or pointed tools, and broken 
chisels into tiny hatchets. The village sites of this period have 
furnished little in the way of antiquities in comparison with the 
stone graves, and not much is known concerning the character of 
the dwellings. 

The Scandinavian flint dagger or poniard is the veritable chef 
d’cuvre of Neolithic art. (Figs. 271 and 272). There is a complete 
series of characteristic forms easy to distinguish, and each is repre- 
sented by numerous examples. In the first or oldest type there 
is practically no differentiation between blade and hilt; both are 
very thin, as is seen when the edge is turned toward the observer. 
The edges curve with perfect regularity from the point to the end 





FIG. 271. MIDDLE STAGE IN THE EVOLUTION OF THE SCANDINAVIAN FLINT DAGGER 
OR PONIARD. 





The handle is thick, squarish in cross section and differentiated from the blade. Flint 
daggers were so numerous that it must have been the custom during the Neolithic Period 
always to carry one in the belt. Scale, ca.}. After Miller. 


42 HUMAN ORIGINS 


of the handle. The most remarkable feature is the long, narrow, 
shallow, parallel grooves passing obliquely from one edge to the 
other, produced by chipping. These parallel grooves always pass 
from the right upward toward the left, no matter by which end 
the specimen is held or which side is turned toward the beholder. 
If the blade were transparent, the parallel grooves of one side 
would be seen to cross those of the other. These results could only 
be obtained at all times by holding the piece of flint in a given 
position and by chipping always with the same hand. It could 
have been either the right or the left hand, probably the right. 
Parallel chipping is to be found in other flint-producing countries, 
but nowhere, with the possible exception of Egypt, was it so general 
or carried to such perfection as in Denmark. The second and third 
types are peculiar to Scandinavia. : 

The second type is also found in the megalithic monuments. 
The hilt becomes more and more differentiated from the blade and 
is thicker (Fig. 271). In the third type the greatest diameter of 
the thin blade is about midway between the point and the shank 
(Fig. 272). The breadth of the hilt is about the same at all points; 
a cross section of the hilt is approximately quadrangular. The 
corners are carefully chipped. This type is characteristic of the 
stone-cist epoch which comes at the close of the Stone Age. 

In 1910 Sterjna attempted a coordination of the Neolithic in 
Scandinavia with that in western Europe as follows: 


SCANDINAVIA WESTERN EUROPE 
4. Bronze Age 4. Bronze Age 
3. Epoch of the dolmens 3. Robenhausian Epoch 
2. Epoch without stone graves 2. Pressignian of Capitan; Spien- 
I. Epoch in which stone imple- nian of Rutot 
ments were not polished 1. Campignian Epoch 
France — 


‘In France, an early epoch of the Neolithic Period, known 
as the Campignian, has been differentiated; it corresponds 
approximately to the epoch of the kitchen middens in Denmark. 
The type station is the village site of Campigny near Blangy-sur- 


ee ee ee ee a ee 





Fic. PUES FINAL STAGE IN THE EVOLUTION OF THE SCANDINAVIAN FLINT DAGGER OR 
PONIARD. 


The one in the center is the longest and the one on the right the finest ever found in 
Denmark. Both the blades and handles are reto‘-rched with consummate skill. Scale, }. 
After Miiller. 


4-4 HUMAN ORIGINS 


Bresle (Seine-Inférieure). A section through the habitation site 
revealed three distinct archeological layers: (3) vegetal earth with 
Neolithic industry which included polished implements; (2) yel- 
low clays composed largely of refuse of Campignian age, contain- 
ing typical Campigian industry in abundance—picks, paring knives, 
scrapers, spokeshaves, etc., also potsherds but no polished stone 
implements; (1) the hearth proper, composed largely of ashes and 
charcoal, in which were found numerous implements and potsherds, 
also of Campignian age, but no polished stone ee The 


Pee BP son G an a 
’ s . ~~ LS 

ger ee ta? ReaD  s oh cele ae 
2 ape (ah a Pars, 23 
LJ =: 





- 2 walt tae 
ries reset ed ae 
a Spm es oie Seine : 
ase. 29, o> gees 
Se as gs" ES Sa STS ee 
Nhe oe TRI DD Re, ee et ee 
= pA Shee Laie ons oe 
Se SN “ 2) Sow 


FiG. 273. SECTION THROUGH THE NEOLITHIC HABITATION SITE AT CAMPIGNY, SEINE- 
INFERIEURE, FRANCE. 


This is the type station for the Campignian Epoch. 1, Chalk; 2, gravels with remains 
of amammoth; 3F, hearth (charcoal and ashes) with Campignian industry (length, 2.10 
meters; breadth, 1.80 meters; thickness 0.45 meter); 4, yellow sandy clay (fill), 1.20 
meters, Campignian industry; 5, vegetal earth containing polished flint implements. 
Scale, 7s. After Salmon, d’Ault du Mesnil, and Capitan. 


hearth was excavated in Quaternary gravels, the latter resting on 
the Chalk (Fig. 273). 

The culture at Campigny represents an early stage of Neolithic 
culture before the art of polishing stone as a shaping process was 
known. Among the flint implements were noted Mousterian and 
Magdalenian survivals, also new forms including the pick and par- 
ing knife (Figs. 274-and 275). Pottery, both crude and fairly 
fine (without ornamentation), and milling stones prove that the 
population no longer depended primarily on the chase and that 
the first steps toward the conquest of the soil had been taken. 


Switzerland 


An epoch known as the Robenhausian was recognized by de 
Mortillet ; he made this epoch fill the entire gap between the Tarde- 


THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD 45 


noisian and the Bronze Age. 


The type station is a Swiss lake 


dwelling in the small desiccated Lake Pfaffikon, canton of Zurich. 


This site, discovered in 1858, is situated some 
3,000 meters (1.9 miles) from the shore, with 
which it was connected by means of a bridge. 
There were three superposed deposits alter- 
nating with sterile layers (peat), all dating 
from the Neolithic Period. There is evidence 
that the first and second villages had been 
burned successively, while the last had simply 
been abandoned. | 

The piles of the lowest (oldest) village 
were round. Among them were found stone 
implements, bones, potsherds, and artifacts 
made of wood and horn; also the products of 
a well developed textile industry — thread, 
strings, network, woven fabrics, fringes, and 
tassels. 

The second settlement at Robenhausen also 
succumbed: finally to a conflagration. It is 
separated from the lower station by a peaty 
layer about 1 meter (3.3 feet) thick. It yielded 
woven fabrics, nets, sherds, pottery vessels 
(complete), and objects of stone, wood, and 
bone; also grains, fruits, and remains of 


domesticated animals—cattle, sheep, and goats. 





Fic. 274. FLINT PICK 
FROM CAMPIGNY. 


The pick makes its 
first appearance with the 
Campignian Epoch in 
this unpolished form. 
Scale, 3. After Salmon, 
d’Ault du Mesnil and 
Capitan. 


Perforated stone 


hammers and axes, types 





Fic. 275. FLINT PARING KNIFE FROM CAMPIGNY. 


The Neolithic tool maker knew how to produce a 
straight edge without recourse to the polishing 
process. Scale, 3. After Salmon, d’Ault du Mesnil 
and Capitan. 


which were lacking in the 
lower station, were found. 
Among other things, clay 
crucibles for the melting 
of bronze and copper were 
found; in three, copper or 
bronze adhered to the cru- 
cibles, indicating that this 
station belonged to the 
close of the Stone Age or 
beginning of the Bronze. 


46 HUMAN ORIGINS 


The third, and last, station was separated from the second by 
a peaty layer 1 meter (3.3 feet) thick. In this station the piles 
were mostly of split, instead of round, timber. It was never burned 
but seems simply to have been abandoned. In it were found stone 
hatchets (numerous but small) and objects of nephrite and jadeite, 
but no textiles. 

The entire settlement at Robenhausen covered about one hec- 
tare (2.5 acres). Among the animal remains should be mentioned 
species no longer living, as Bos primigenius and bison; of species 
still living in central Europe there may be mentioned the stag, roe- 
buck,. chamois, wild boar, wolf, fox, wildcat, hedgehog, etc., also 
many species of bird and fish. Very few human remains were 
found, and these were fragmentary. 

Hardly another lake dwelling can compare with Robenhausen in 
respect to seeds; over fifty kinds of plants were represented, most 
of them cereals—two kinds of barley, three of wheat, millet, etc. 
Agriculture was an important industry. Remains of flax—root, 
stem, and seeds, as well as woven products, are abundant. The 
lake dwellers of Robenhausen did not need to wear skins, for 
they made linen cloth, and probably also woolen cloth, though none 
of the latter has been preserved. They certainly had sheep. Cloth 
was dyed, the principal colors used being red (hematite), yellow 
(yellow weed, Reseda luteola), and blue (danewort, Sambucus 
ebulus). Oak was preferred for piles, but several other kinds of 
wood were also employed. Nuts were used quite extensively for 
food. The water nut (Trapa natans) was abundant, and berries 
of all kinds were gathered. 

The Robenhausian is the equivalent of the S Fes, of the 
Belgian authors. It witnessed the beginning of megalithic monu- 
ments, lake villages, and fortified camps; it also witnessed the ex- 
ploitation of flint mines on a large scale, especially in France, Bel- 
gium, Holland, and England. 

The lake-dwelling epoch of Switzerland belongs in part to the 
Neolithic Period and in part to the Age of Metals. Basing his 
system on data gathered from the former class, Heierli recog- 
nized three phases of the Neolithic Period, each represented by a 
type station. For the first epoch the type station is Chavannes 
(Schafis) near Neuville. The remains of wild animals were more 


THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD 47 


numerous here than those of the domesticated animals. The textile 
art had made its appearance, but there was no ornamentation on 
the pottery or on the tools and weapons. 

The second epoch is characterized by a brachycephalic popula- 
tion. The remains of domestic and wild animals occur in about 
equal numbers. Well fashioned stone axes, especially of jadeite, 
nephrite, and chloromelanite, occur. The type station is Moossee- 
dorf. 

The third epoch is one of transition from the Neolithic to the 
Bronze Age. Numerous tools, weapons, and ornaments of copper 
occur. Remains of domestic animals predominate. The popula- 
tion was in part dolichocephalic and in part brachycephalic. The 
type station is Vinelz (Fenil). 


Belgium 


In Belgium, three phases of the Neolithic Period are recog- 
nized by Hamal-Nandrin and Servais: the Omalian, Campignian, 
and Robenhausian or Spiennean. The Omalian is an early phase, 
characterized by the complete absence of polished flint implements 
and of the ax properly so-called, also by the presence of pottery. 
It is represented at some four hundred stations in the Province 
of Liege alone. Campignian type specimens in Belgium include the 
paring knife and the pick. It is seen to good advantage at Fouron 
and Saint-Martin. 


Phenicia 


At Nahr-el-Kelb, Phoenicia, 7 kilometers (4.37 miles) from the 
Mediterranean, are three caves, in one of which evidences of Neo- 
lithic occupation were found, especially flint chips, polished stone 
axes, chipped and polished chisels, saws, punches, points, chipped 
scrapers, potsherds, and animal bones. 

Southeast of the hamlet of Harajel is a cave from which animal 
bones and many potsherds have been taken. Near the entrance to 
this cave Zumoffen found a Neolithic workshop which yielded 
scrapers, points, nuclei, hammers, and a rough draft of a fine 
ax ready for polishing. The pottery from Harajel is coarse and 
friable, not well baked if fired at all. 

Ras-el-Kelb, a station on a promontory of the Syrian coast pre- 


48 HUMAN ORIGINS 


viously mentioned as a Paleolithic site, also includes sites occupied 
by Neolithic man. It was first explored by Tristram, and later by 
Dawson in 1884. Zumoffen found cultural remains in the breccia 
as well as on the surface. The implements include scrapers, points, 
punches, and saws, also chipped and polished axes and chisels, and 
perforated shells. The numerous shaping stones, nuclei, polishers, 
and chips show that the manufacture of implements took place on 
the spot. 

Ras Beyrouth is the name given to an ensemble of worked- 
flint deposits in the sands which stretch to the southwest of the 
city of Beyrouth along the Mediterranean shore from the promon- 
tory of Ras Beyrouth to the southern extremity of the dunes. It 
seems that once there was here an extensive series of Neolithic 
workshops, now for the most part covered by sands. Mixed with 
this workshop débris are Neolithic potsherds as well as sherds and 
other débris representing practically every phase of post-Neolithic 
culture. 

One hour from Sidon, near a brook called Zaharani, is a 
Neolithic workshop known as Nahr-Zaharani. Over an area 1,500 
meters (4,925 feet) long by 400 meters (1,313.3 feet) wide the 
soil is thickly strewn with innumerable flint chips. Here one finds 
blocks of flint and silicious quartz, shaping stones, nuclei, chipped 
axes with only the edge polished, chisels, points, scrapers, polishers, 
and chips. A few potsherds are mixed with the workshop deébris. 

At Gezer (late Neolithic to Iron Age) the rocky heart of the 
hill was found to be full of caves, partly natural, partly artificial. 
They vary largely in plan as well as in size. Some are mere shel- 
ters 2 to 3 meters (8 to Io feet) square; others are series of 
chambers connected by doorways and corridors. The ceilings are 
generally less than 2 meters (7 feet) high. In the floor deposits 
of these caves were found flint flakes, knives, scrapers, and points; 
millstones; hearth and heating stones; polishers; rounded pebbles, 
etc.; fragments of pottery which was made without the use of the 
potter’s wheel; perforated amulets of stone and bone. In one of 
the caves bones of a non-Semitic race were found. 

Dolmens still abound in eastern Palestine. West of the Jordan 
dolmens are not so numerous, being confined to the district of 
Galilee, the neighborhood of Jerusalem, and the section between 


oe NEOLITHIC PERIOD 49 


Hebron and Gaza. Many of the Moabite dolmens resemble those 
of western Europe in that they are surrounded by one or more 
rings of stones. An interesting series of tumuli on the hills south 
of Jerusalem are still to be examined. Near Hizmeh, a village just 
north of Jerusalem, are five remarkable prehistoric stone monu- 
ments, known locally as the “Graves of the Children of Israel.” 

In southern Palestine, from Hebron to Ashdod, are caves con- 
sisting of labyrinthine groups of circular, square, or rectangular 
chambers hewn out of the soft limestone with great care. They 
vary in size and complexity. According to MacAlister, one cave 
contained no less than sixty chambers; caves with five, ten, or even 
twenty chambers, large and small, are not uncommon. One cham- 
ber was 122 meters (400 feet) long by 24.4 meters (80 feet) in 
height. 

In the middle of the area bounded by Hebron, Ashdod, Gath, 
and Gaza, is the village of Beit Jibrin, the “House of Gabriel.” 
This is the center of the cave district. The Gezerite cave dwellers 
north of Rephraim were still in the Stone Age when the hewers 
of the Beit Jibrin caves were beginning to use metal tools, as the 
pick marks testify, so that the cave-dwelling period of Palestine 
overlaps on the Age of Metals. 

At the ruins of Jericho, according to Sellin, there are at least 
seven culture levels. They are as follows, beginning at the top: 


Byzantine 

Late Hebrew 

Hebrew 

Oe Me hire te isc 's obs 2 8b oa es Iron AGE 

PM IIIS oo ig ic ee oe os LATE BRONZE AGE 
(na hoe RRR Se BRONZE AGE 
eG ie he ek co ews eee snes NEOLITHIC 


A relative chronology for Palestine may be tabulated as follows: 


ph. 538.—Cyrus ordered Jerusalem rebuilt. 
588.—Fall of Jerusalem, Babylonian captivity. 
722.—Fall of Samaria, Assyrian captivity. 
ca. 920.—Division of the kingdom. 
925-960.—King Solomon. 
g60-1000.—King David. 
1000-1 200.—Judges. 


50 HUMAN ORIGINS 


Iron AGE 


1300.—Renewed occupation of Syria by the Hebrews. 
1800.—Jewish immigration into Egypt. 
2000.—Abraham. 

EARLY CANAANITES 


3800.—Chaldean influence. 


BrONZE AGE 


4500.—Early Semitic invasions. 


AGE OF COPPER 
B.C. 5000. 


NEOLITHIC PERIOD 


B.C. 5000-10,000 (or 20,000). 


PALEOLITHIC PERIOD 


B.C. 20,000-500,000. 


Babylonia, Elam, and Amurru 


Babylonian historians of the third millennium B.C. have given 
us lists of kings and have furnished us with glimpses of their his- 
tory as early as about 4300 B.C., when we find that the tribal state 
had long since passed, as well as the days of independent city- 
states, and that imperialism had already been established. The 
length of the period when the settlements in the valley gradually 
developed into cities and existed independently cannot be deter- 
mined. There is, however, every indication that it was long, and 
the date 5,000 B.C. for man’s entrance into Babylonia is a rational 
conjecture. 

The first settlers who came into this great alluvial plain from 
the higher lands in Amurru, farther up the rivers, had already 
acquired a fair degree of civilization, since there were two pre- 
requisites before permanent settlements could be established, 
namely, intelligence in harnessing the rivers and cooperation in con- 
trolling the floods. According to Professor Clay, there can be but 
little doubt that man learned the art of irrigation in the country 
to the northwest, in which region archeology has already determined 
a great antiquity for man: 


THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD 51 


IRoN AGE 


B.C. 1175-1750.—Cassites ruled Babylonia. 

1800.—Hittites invaded Babylonia. 
2080-2123.—Hammurabi. 

2225.—First Babylon dynasty founded. 
2300.—Rise of Assyria. 
2357.—Nisin dynasty founded by Amorites. 
2474.—Ur-Engur founded the third Ur dynasty. 
2625.—Guti supremacy in Babylonia. 
2850.—Sargon I founded the Akkad dynasty. 
2875.—Lugal-zaggisi conquered western Asia. 
2950.—Bau-ellit, a woman, founded the fourth Kish dynasty. 


BRONZE AGE 


3300.—Amorite supremacy in Babylonia. 

3700.—Elamite supremacy in Babylonia. 

4100.—First Erech dynasty, Age of Tammuz and Gilgamesh. 

4300.—First Kish dynasty, Age of Etana. 

5000.—Predynastic periods of Amurru, Elam, and Baby- 
lonia. 


Egypt, Persia, and Crete 


The chronology of Egyptian cultures is as follows :3 


B.C. 1090-1200.—Twentieth dynasty. IRON AGE 
1205-1350.—Nineteenth dynasty. 
1350-1580.—Eighteenth dynasty. 
1580-1788.—Thirteenth to seventeenth dy- 

BRONZE 

nasty. 

1788-2000.—Twelfth dynasty. 
2000-2160.—Eleventh dynasty. 
2160-2445.—Ninth and tenth dynasties. 
2445-2475.—Seventh and eighth dynasties. 
2475-2625.—Sixth dynasty. 
2625-2750.—Fifth dynasty. 
2750-2900.—Fourth dynasty. 
2900-2980.—Third dynasty. 
2980-3400.—First and second dynasties. 


AGE 


ENEOLITHIC EPpocH 


NEOLITHIC PERIOD 
PALEOLITHIC PERIOD 


3 The dynastic dates are from Breasted. 


D2 HUMAN ORIGINS 


According to Montelius, the Neolithic in Persia (Susa) began 
20,000 years before our time. 

The Neolithic began at Knossos in Crete at least 14,000 B.C. 
The following tabulation is adapted from Evans: 


IRoN AGE 

B.C. 1100-1350.—Late Minoan III. 

1350-1500.—Late Minoan II. 

1500-1600.—Late Minoan I. 

1600-1700.—Middle Minoan III. 

17c0-1900.—Middle Minoan II. BRoNZE AGE 

1g00-2100.—Middle Minoan I. 

2100-2400.—Early Minoan III. 

2400-2800.—E arly Minoan II. 

2800-3400.—Early Minoan I. 

3400-14,000,— NEOLITHIC PERIOD 


MINING 


Humankind makes greater demands on nature than does any 
other creature. These demands increase directly in proportion to 
man’s advancement in civilization. As long as dead wood and 
surface flints sufficed to meet the needs of primitive man, the 
natural resources of the earth were not endangered. The troublous 
conservation problem may be traced to the users of Neolithic im- 
plements whose needs outran the pace of nature’s supply. Neolithic 
man wanted more and better flint; this he obtained by mining. 
Freshly extracted flint, before it loses its quarry water, is much 
more easily worked than dead surface flint. 

It is not definitely known to what extent Paleolithic man mined 
for flint; his operations along this line were probably simple and 
superficial. The best Acheulian and Mousterian implements appear 
to have been made of freshly quarried flint. A flint quarry of 
Mousterian age has been reported from Les Bouleaux, near Macon 
(Sadne-et-Loire). The exploitation of quarry flint at El Mekta, 
southern Tunis, certainly took the place during Paleolithic times. 
Whether Reginald Smith is right in referring the earliest habitation 
of Grime’s Graves and Cissbury to the Aurignacian Epoch is ap- 
parently still an open question. It is worthy of mention that at 


fo NEOLITHIC: PERIOD 53 


Brandon, in the vicinity of Grime’s Graves, the mining and knap- 
ping of flint is still carried on. 

Flint mining became an important industry during the Neo- 
lithic Period; evidence of this is found in England, Sweden, Bel- 
gium, France, Spain, Portugal, Italy, and Sicily, and also in the 
New World. Two general systems were developed: (1) mining 
by “open cast” or trench and (2) by galleries and shafts (Fig. 
270). ‘These systems were probably developed in the order given. 
An excellent example of mining by “open cast” is that at Obourg 
(Hainaut), Belgium. The best 
known mines in which the gal- y 
lery and shaft systems were used 
ue those at Sane also in WE 
Hainaut. 

Obourg.—Access to a seam % iy 
of fine black flint some 3 or 4 
Mietera(0.0 tO 13.1 fect) be- 
neath the surface at Obourg was 
by means of parallel trenches in 





_ in em aA 
UMS APEM TELA LE 


the side of a declivity. Here 
galleries were developed to some 
extent in connection with the 
trenches. In the construction of 
one of these galleries a miner 


Fic. 276. FonewoN OF A FLINT MINE AT 
MUR DE BARREZ, AVEYRON, FRANCE. 


The primitive miners, disdaining the 
upper layer of flint, dug down till they 
reached the level of E. This bed they 
mined through its entire length. C, cal- 
careous formation; s, beds of flint; P, 
filled in pit; d, clays and gravels; c, deposit 


met his death; his skeleton was 
found by de Munck and with it, 
apparently held in the hand, was a deerhorn. A workshop had been 
established near the mines at Obourg, and there Dubreux found 
many rejects, also a complete inventory of flint tools made from 
the excellent Obourg flint. In the mines, however, only deerhorn 
picks were found. Since the close of the Great War, Rutot found 
a second complete skeleton of a miner at Obourg. 
Strépy.—Mining operations at Strépy were similar to those 
practiced at Obourg, except that there is no evidence of a work- 
shop at Strépy; the one at Obourg probably served both mines. 
Two skeletons, one of a miner facing downward with limbs ex- 
tended and one of a child, were found in 1905 at the bottom of a 
trench some 3 meters (9.8 feet) beneath the surface in the Roland 


of carbon on the floor of the cavity E. 
After Boule. 


54 HUMAN ORIGINS 


quarry. With the skeletons were the remains of a wild boar with 
enormous tusks and two deerhorn picks, but no implements of flint. 
The skeletons lay at the foot of a vertical wall of chalk and at 
the level of a seam of fine black flint. 

Spiennes.—The flint mines and workshops at Spiennes were 
discovered in 1840 by Toillez. When the railway from Mons to 
Binche was put through in 1867-68, some twenty-five shafts of the 
Neolithic mines were exposed. At that time Neyrinckx found part 
of the skeleton of a child some 12 years old and the lower jaw 
of an adult male at the bottom of a shaft 12 meters (39 feet) 
deep. With these remains were found deerhorn picks, some in- 
tended for service in one hand, some for service in both hands. 
The Spiennes miners employed picks both of deerhorn and of flint, 
the latter being more abundant; pick marks are clearly to be seen 
on the walls. None of the flint picks seem to have been shaped by 
polishing. Hammers of sandstone were found in the shafts and 
galleries. 

Not only were galleries driven in from the line of outcrop at 
Spiennes, but shafts were also sunk from the surface of the plateau 
above. These shafts occur over an area of more than 24 hectares 
(60 acres), the surface being almost everywhere covered with 
workshop débris, which is in places 91 centimeters (3 feet) deep. 
In order to reach the desired seam of flint, shafts were sometimes 
sunk to a depth of Io or 12 meters (32.8 to 39.4 feet), passing 
through ten horizons of less satisfactory flint. The bottom of 
each shaft was widened into a chamber from which galleries were 
driven in various directions. 

At the mouth the Spiennes pits are from 2.4 to 3.7 meters (8 
to 12 feet) in diameter, becoming more restricted in dimensions 
as they descend, so that at the level of the desired seam of flint 
the diameter is not more than I meter (3.3 feet). At Grime’s 
Graves some of the shafts have a diameter of 9.8 meters (32 feet) 
at the mouth and some 3 meters (10 or more feet) at the bottom, 
indicating that mining on the Continent was more advanced than 
it was across the Channel. At both Spiennes and Grime’s Graves 
the shafts were used as dumping grounds for material taken out in 
digging new ones, and the partly filled shafts were employed as 
dwelling places. 


THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD 55 


The pottery found at Spiennes was coarse and badly baked. 
No lamps were found. The notches cut in the wall of at least one 
shaft are supposed to have held wooden beams, forming a stair- 
case for ingress and egress. The galleries had a comfortable height 
of from 1.5 to 1.8 meters (5 to 6 feet). Rutot has reported the 
finding of two human skeletons at Spiennes since the Great War, 
but no implements were found with them. 

Sainte-Gertrude.—A great flint mine and workshop have re- 
cently been explored at Sainte-Gertrude, just across the Belgian 
frontier in Holland. Hamal and Servais found not only a system 
of pits and galleries, but also deerhorn picks for mining. The 
station is, therefore, comparable with the Belgian Neolithic flint 
mines and workshops. At Sainte-Gertrude are found transition 
forms linking the paring knife with the ax. 

Grime’s Graves.—The prehistoric flint mines known as Grime’s 
Graves, near Brandon (Norfolk), cover an area of some 8.4 hec- 
tares (21 acres). The area is said to be marked by 346 pits; only 
two of the pits and a few floors were excavated by a committee 
in 1914. Pit No. 1 has an average diameter at the top of 9.15 
meters (30 feet) and at the bottom some 4.6 meters (15 feet). It 
is sunk to a depth of 9.15 meters (30 feet). Pit No. 2 is much 
larger, some 12.8 meters (42 feet) in diameter at the top and 
about 9.45 meters (31 feet) deep. From the base of Pit No. I 
four or five galleries radiate like the spokes of a wheel. The ends 
of some of these galleries tap neighboring shafts. The communica- 
tions connecting the various galleries are of three kinds: wide, 
open doorways of about the same height and breadth as the gal- 
leries themselves; creepholes only large enough to crawl through; 
and still smaller openings presumably for ventilation. Each pit 
therefore no doubt communicated either directly or indirectly with 
all other pits by means of an elaborate system of galleries, creep- 
holes, and ventholes. 

The artifacts found at Grime’s Graves include deerhorn picks 
(Fig. 277), an implement made from the tibia of the red deer, 
chipped and polished stone implements, crude pottery, and frag- 
ments of what might have been willow baskets which were prob- 
ably used in carrying the finer materials. Flint mines were evi- 
dently lighted by lamps just as were the Paleolithic caverns. 


56 HUMAN ORIGINS 


Resinous torches may have been employed, but no remains of these 
have as yet been found. At Grime’s Graves, Greenwell discovered 
four lamps, “one in a pit and others in the galleries, in one case 
placed upon a ledge of chalk in just the proper position for throw- 
ing light upon the place being worked.” 

Among the débris filling Pit No. 1, a human skull was en- 
countered at a depth of 3.2 meters (10.7 feet) ; in Pit No. 2, part of 
a child’s skeleton was 
found. 

Excavations at 
Grime’s Graves in 1920 
brought to light a new 
chipping and occupa- 
tion zone. The habita- 
tion level, immediately 


Fic. 277. DEERHORN PICK USED IN THE MINING OF overlying glacial sand, 
FLINT, FROM GRIME’S GRAVES, NORFOLK, ENGLAND. y ielded flint imple- 





The Neolithic miner circled by means of a flint knife ments, bone tools, pot- 
all the tines of a red deer antler except the brow tine. 
The circled tines were then easily removed from the main tery, and two engrav- 
stem of the antler by a sharp stroke, leaving the main ines on flint crust. This 
stem to serve as a handle and the brow tine as the pick. 2 ‘ 
Scale, 4. From the British Museum Guide. new zone was examined 


over-an area, olsag 
square meters (36 square yards), down to a depth of 0.9 meter 
(3 feet), and proved to have been occupied at three successive 
periods, each occupation level being separated from the others by 
sterile deposits. According to A. L. Armstrong, who has made a 
special study of the successive deposits, the section reveals the fol- 
lowing: 


7. Roman and Romano-British pottery. Early Iron Age pottery. 

6. Tuirp FLoor. Hammerstones, pot boilers, hearth, bone tools, 
whetstone, bronze tweezers, split animal bones. Bronze Age. 

5. Chalk rubble. 

4. SECOND Fioor. Hearths, flint flakes, cores, two deerhorn picks, 
split bones. Neolithic. 

3. Chalk rubble. 

2. Frrst Froor. Hearths, bone tools, pottery, chipped flint imple- 
ments and flakes, engravings on flint crust. Maglemose (?). 

1. Red sand. 


THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD 57 


The most important engraving, a crude figure of either Cervus 
elaphus or Alces machlis, lay embedded in the upper portion of the 
red sand. The second engraving, representing the head and back 
of some animal, probably the hind, was found on the upper sur- 
face of the first floor. Both engravings are cruder than the well- 
known Paleolithic engravings and are evidently of post-Paleolithic 
workmanship; they probably represent the transition phase known 
as Azilian-Tardenoisian, or Maglemose. 

Cissbury.—There are striking points of resemblance between 
the mines at Grime’s Graves and those of Cissbury (Sussex) in the 
great size of the shafts; at 
Cissbury, these vary in diam- 
Sivmetfoimeo.7 10° 21.35 meters 
(22 to 70 feet) depending on 
their position on the hillside 
slope and the tilt of the flint 
Seatia) Lhe depth of the pits 
varies from 6.1 to I1.9 meters 
feowto. 3Q)4eet). The gal- 
leries radiate from the pits Fic. 278. CHALK LAMP FROM THE FLINT 
like spokes from a wheel hub, MINES OF CISSBURY, SUSSEX, ENGLAND. 
but there are no creepholes Like the cave artist, the Neolithic miner of 


flint required artificial light. This lamp was 
nor ventholes. Few deerhorn found on a ledge in such a position as to throw 


eee weounceinithe pits (7S: ona miner at work... Seale, 4. Prom the 
and galleries in comparison 

with the number found at Grime’s Graves. Only three polished 
stone axes were found, one of which was only a foot from the 
surface. Part of a large vessel suitable for carrying was found. 
The water supply was presumably the spring at Broadwater, 2.4 
kilometers (1.5 miles) distant. 

Chalk lamps, one of which still had blackened edges, were of a 
somewhat different type from those discovered at Grime’s Graves 
(Fig. 278). Among the rubble that partly fills the pits are many 
flint chips, worked flakes, well chipped celts, ruder implements, a 
few boring tools, scrapers, stones that had been used as hammers, 
also rude pottery and charcoal. 

At least two skeletons were found at Cissbury. The complete 
skeleton of a woman some twenty-five years old was encountered 





58 HUMAN ORIGINS 


within 0.76 meter (2.5 feet) of the bottom of the shaft. Judg- 
ing from the position of the skeleton, the victim had fallen head 
foremost down the open shaft to her death. Estimated from 
the femur length, the stature was probably not over 1.5 meters 
G5 feet). 

The second skeleton, that of a male, was found about halfway 
between the top and the bottom of a shaft. The interment had 
taken place at or near the surface after the shaft had been half 
filled. Such a sheltered spot would be looked upon as a suitable 
place for burial. The corpse was laid on its right side facing the 
east, the legs sharply flexed, bringing the knees to within a few 
inches of the chin and the heels against the pelvis. A handsomely 
chipped flint ax was placed in front of the knees, and the body was 
surrounded by blocks of chalk. Some eight shells of Helix 
nemoralis and a fire-marked pebble seem to have been buried with 
the body. This male was low of stature, since his femur length 
was 0.1 inch shorter than that of the female. 

Other flint mines (pits without galleries) have been found in 
England at Massingham Heath, Chichester, Maumbury, Peppard, 
and Grimston Road. At Massingham Heath the pits were of large 
diameter but only 1.5 to 2.4 meters (5 to 8 feet) deep. One pit 
at Grimston Road has a diameter of 31.45 meters (90 feet). One 
at Chichester is 3.7 meters (12 feet) in diameter by 4.6 meters 
(15 feet) in depth. 

A Roman amphitheater had been built over the pits at Maum- 
bury Rings. One of the seven pits is 1.98 by 3.05 meters (6.5 
by 10 feet) at the mouth and 6.25 meters (20.5 feet) deep. It is 
D-shaped in section like one of the Cissbury pits, and the straight 
wall has ledges apparently to enable the miners to descend and 
ascend. Judging from the nature of the pottery, the mines at 
Maumsbury are supposed to represent a later phase of the Neo- 
lithic than Grime’s Graves. The deerhorn picks and fauna, how- 
ever, are the same at both sites. 

The discovery of a flint mine with picks and pick marks at 
High Wycombe (Buckingham) was announced in 1902. 

France.—In France quarries have been reported from Bas 
Meudon (Seine) near Paris, Le Petit Morin (Marne), Nointel, 
Velennes, and Champignolles (Oise), Bellevue near Mur-de-Barrez 


THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD 59 


(Aveyron), La Petite-Garenne near Angouléme (Charente), and 
Portonville near Nemours (Seine-et-Marne). 

Sweden.—Neolithic flint mines were discovered in southern 
Sweden near Malmo in 1903. The flint occurs in chalk but the 
chalk is not im situ, it consists only of loose blocks of various sizes 
brought by the ice and deposited between the ground moraine and 
the surface moraine. The flint was mined by sinking a shaft some 
2.13 meters (7 feet) in diameter through the surface moraine and 
the chalk until the seam of flint was reached, at a depth of 0.9 to 
3.05 meters (3 to 10 feet). The condition of the deposit pre- 
vented the driving of galleries, but small vaults were dug around 
the base of the shafts. Sometimes the shafts were driven so close 
together that the vaults at the base are actually in connection. As 
soon as the workings were finished, each shaft was filled. No 
workshop has been discovered in the immediate vicinity of these 
mines. The principal tool of the miner was the deerhorn pick; no 
flint picks have yet been found. A pottery lamp was discovered 
in one of the shafts. 

The deerhorn pick continued to be used in mining operations 
long after the close of the Neolithic, especially in the mining of 
copper, salt, and tin, also of calcite used in the pottery industry. 
The deerhorn pick has been found in the mines of Cornwall, the 
calcite mines of Furfooz near Namur (Belgium), the copper mines 
of northern Spain, and the salt mines at Salzburg near Hallstatt 
in the Salzkammergut. In the case of the Salzburg mines of 
Austria and the Cangas de Onis mines of Spain, they were as- 
sociated with stone wedges and copper or bronze picks. The deer- 
horn pick was also employed as an agricultural implement. At 
the Aramo mines in Spain and the Salzburg mines, the workings 
were lighted by fire sticks or resinous torches inserted into lumps 
of clay. 

Everywhere the Neolithic methods of extracting the flint were 
practically the same, especially where local conditions were similar. 
The cultural remains also had many features in common—the deer- 
horn pick, the flint pick, the hammerstones, sometimes the stone 
lamp. Wherever workshops have been found in association with 
the mines, workshop products are similar. 

That which is true of the artifacts is true to an equal extent 


60 HUMAN ORIGINS 


of the faunal remains. At Grime’s Graves only 37 per cent of 
the mammalian species have been found associated elsewhere with 
Azilian culture. The balance is typically Neolithic. The list of 
mammalian remains found at Spiennes includes: badger, grizzly 
bear, wildcat, dog*, fox*, polecat, Bos primigenius*, sheep*, ibex, 
goat, wild boar*, reindeer, elk, red deer*, roe deer*, hamster, pica, 
dormouse*, long-tailed field mouse, water vole, hare, rabbit*, mole*. 
Those starred were also found at Grime’s Graves, which site yielded 
in addition several species not reported from Spiennes—horse, 
beaver, field vole, bank vole, and common shrew. Reginald Smith’s 
contention that flint was mined at Grime’s Graves and Cissbury 
as far back as the Aurignacian Epoch is not borne out by the 
fauna and must depend for its support on lithic typology, which, 
when taken alone, has doubtful value. 

Ohio.—Extensive flint quarries have been explored by W. C. 
Mills on Flint Ridge in Licking and Muskingum counties, Ohio. 
The operations centered in Hopewell Township (Licking County). 
Within a radius of 1.6 kilometers (1 mile) from Clark’s black- 
smith shop as a center, Mills estimates the quarried area to be 
about 40 hectares (100 acres). ‘The flint stratum varies in thick- 
ness from 45 centimeters to 1.8 meters (1.5 to 6 feet). 

The quarrymen made use of granite and quartzite hammer- 
stones varying in size up to 11.4 kilograms (25 pounds). Wedges 
made of wood or horn were used in dislodging the desired pieces 
of flint. The process of roughing out the blank forms was ac- 
complished at the quarries. The third process, that of trimming 
blades or cores ready for transportation, took place at workshops 
in close proximity to the quarries. The bed of flint is near the 
surface, so that neither shafts nor galleries were necessary in ex- 
ploiting it. 

Mills states that none of the stone mauls and hammers used in 
quarrying had been hafted. There was no evidence to show the 
use of fire as a quarrying agent in any of the numerous sites ex- 
amined by Mills, who does not believe that fire was used for the 
purpose either directly or indirectly. Blades and cores were the 
chief commodities manufactured at the quarry workshops. These 
commodities were transported to practically every portion of Ohio. 

Oklahoma and Arkansas.—The chert quarries in the north- 


THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD 61 


eastern corner of Oklahoma, described by W. H. Holmes, have 
many points in common with Flint Ridge and the flint mines of 
Europe. The chert beds are thick, horizontal, and superficial. The 
excavations took the form of roundish pits, rarely more than 12.2 
meters (40 feet) in diameter or 1.5 meters (5 feet) in depth; on 
the margins, however, trenches 30.5 meters (100 feet) or more 
in length were encountered. Shops were established on the margins 
of the pits, on the dump heaps, and at convenient points in the 
vicinity. Holmes mentions the finding of a deerhorn that had 
probably been used as a pick. 

Novaculite quarries of even greater extent than the chert quar- 
ries of Oklahoma have been reported from Arkansas. 


WORKSHOPS AND LAND HABITATIONS 


Neolithic stations include both lake dwellings and land sites; 
the latter may be classed under several heads, such as villages, 
strongholds, isolated cabin hearths, and workshops. The work- 
shop usually is associated with a village site. Caves, both natural 
and artificial, were also inhabited during the Neolithic Period. 

A Neolithic village was composed of a number of simple 
rounded huts sheltering a shallow pit of the same shape. The 
walls were of poles and branches clothed on the outside with a 
coating of clay. The diameter of the huts ranged from 1.5 to 
2.0 meters (4.9 to 6.6 feet). Sometimes a circle of stone sur- 
rounded the cabin pit. Huts were sometimes divided, one portion 
serving as kitchen and the other as bedroom. Huts of the Neo- 
lithic type continued in use during the Bronze and Iron Ages. 

Some of the best known land stations are found in the province 
of Liege, Belgium; Grossgartach, east of Heilbronn (Wurttem- 
berg) ; the valley of the Vibrata in Italy; Butmir, east of Sarajevo; 
Jablanica, Jugoslavia; and southern Russia. 

The villages of the Hesbaye (Liege) in Belgium belong ap- 
parently to a rather late phase of the Neolithic Period. Judging 
from the character of ceramic ornamentation, they are synchronous 
with the second citadel of Troy and the third epoch of the Neo- 
lithic Period in Scandinavia. 


62 HUMAN ORIGINS 


The Neolithic village of Grossgartach, explored by Schliz, has 
revealed valuable data concerning Neolithic house construction. 
The ground plan is rectangular, approximately 4 by 5 meters (13.1 
by 16.4 feet). The wall consists of upright staves, or small slabs, 
strengthened by a weft of withes running horizontally. This frame- 
work is plastered both inside and out, straw and chaff being used 
as a binder. A yellowish slip was applied to the inner surface. 
In one instance, apparently the chieftain’s dwelling, a zigzag pat- 
tern composed of white and red bands was applied over the slip. 

Some 5 meters (16.4 feet) 
removed from the chief- 
SLEEPING PLATFORM f tain’s dwelling was his 
stable. 

According to Schliz, a 
typical ground plan at 


Gin. 
Y/, V/4 a Me Hf 





HEARTH 


Yyoyfg entrance, not necessarily 
YY YUL by way of the piazza; (3) 
inside (a) an elevated 
space for a sleeping room, 
(b) a hearth in the main 
room, and (c) a refuse 
pit, usually in one corner 


' ; 
Ae Hoes ! Y, N Grossgartach includes: 
n- Lr _ | Y (I) 4 sort of open piazza 
NM yi | at one side or end; (2) an 

S 


eo 


7 
‘ 





Fic. 279. GROUND PLAN AND SECTION OF A , i 
NEOLITHIC HOUSE AT GROSSGARTACH, of the main room (Fig. 


SOUTHERN GERMANY. 279). In one of the 
Under the ashes in the hearth pit, Schliz found the hearths Schliz found an 


almost complete skull of an ox (Bos taurus). The ; 
measures in the illustration are in meters. Adapted almost complete skull of 
from Schliz. 

Bos taurus. By way of 
comparison it is interesting to note that the refuse pits of the pre- 
historic village sites in Ohio are usually outside the tepee, as reported 
by Mills, who likewise found evidence that many of the pits were 
employed for the storage of supplies prior to their use as refuse pits. 

Grossgartach belongs to an advanced phase of the Neolithic, 
as represented by polished stone implements with perforation for 
hafting and by two well-known ceramic types, the so-called 


Schnurkerantk and Bandkeramik. The incised patterns in a dark 


THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD 63 


paste are emphasized by a white filling. Nothing in the way of 
metal was found at Grossgartach. 

The most important feature of the finds made at Butmir, 
Jugoslavia, is the ceramic ornamentation, in which the spiral and 
the chevron are the characteristic notes. There are three archeo- 
logical horizons at Butmir characterized by the same types of stone 
industry. Examples of lithic industry including both chipped and 
polished implements are most numerous in the uppermost level. 
Clay figurines and sherds ornamented with spirals are most fre- 
quent in the lowest level, become rare in the middle horizon, and 
are entirely wanting in the uppermost. The huts were round, and 
sheltered round pits. Butmir possessed. the combined character- 
istics of village and workshop; both pottery and stone implements 
were manufactured there. 

Neolithic land habitations are chiefly centered along the prin- 
cipal water courses or river systems. They were likewise more 
plentiful in regions where flint abounded. ‘Thus in France the 
principal sites are in the valleys of the Seine, Sadne, Rhone, 
Garonne, and Loire. The department of Saone-et-Loire, central 
with respect to these river systems, is the richest of all in vestiges 
of Neolithic culture. 

On the border between Saone-et-Loire and Cote-d’Or is the 
Camp de Chassey, one of the most important Neolithic stations in 
the whole of France. The camp is well situated on the summit of 
a narrow rocky plateau, the escarpments of which command every 
avenue of approach. The camp has a total length of 744 meters 
(2,442 feet) and a width varying from 110 to 205 meters (361 to 
673 feet). At each end was an enbankment which rose to a height 
of 14 meters (46 feet) above the outside ditch. The cultural re- 
mains found at the Camp de Chassey * belong chiefly to the Neo- 
lithic Period; but the place continued to be occupied in the Bronze 
Age and for a part of the first epoch of the Iron Age. The Neo- 
lithic hearths and vestiges of habitations are numerous, as are also 
potsherds, flints, polished stone implements, and objects of bone 
and staghorn. 

Among the other important Neolithic camps in France, there 





4Dr. Loydreau’s fine collection from this site is in the museum at Autun. 


64 HUMAN ORIGINS 


should be mentioned the Camp de Catenoy near Clermont and 
Camp-Barbet at Janville, both in the department of Oise; and 
the camp of Peu-Richard, commune of Thenac (Charente-In- 
férieure ). 

It would be difficult to separate the Neolithic fortified sites 
from those of the Bronze and early Iron Ages. All, however, 
averaged smaller in size than the great Gallic oppida of Cesar’s 
time. Fortified Neolithic camps rarely exceed in area 30, 25, or 
even I5 hectares (75, 62.5, or 37.5 acres). The vcaimpeous er. 
Richard measures 6 hectares (15 acres), that of Catenoy less 
than 5, and that of Mont Vaudois 2.5. Neolithic ramparts were 
constructed either simply of earth or of rough stones mixed with 
earth. Neolithic builders understood the value of supplementing 
ramparts by means of ditches, as may be observed at Catenoy, 
Chassey, and Peu-Richard. 

A necessary concomitant of mining and quarrying of flint is 
the reducing of the quarry product into commercial shape. The 
waste must be eliminated; crude, angular masses of flint are con- 
verted into shapely nuclei or into implements of various kinds; 
hence the workshop may contain various by-products, broken, un- 
satisfactory implements, and stores of trade specimens. 

Among the well-known Neolithic workshops in France, Grand- 
Pressigny (Indre-et-Loire) ranks perhaps first. The flint comes 
from denuded chalk deposits, is of fine quality, and of a color 
resembling that of beeswax. The first discoveries of workshop 
débris were made at La Villatte near Grand-Pressigny by the Abbé 
Chevalier in 1863. In the spring of 1864 Dr. Leveille discovered 
near his farm in the commune of Grand-Pressigny still vaster and 
richer workshops. During the same year the workshops were ex- 
plored by Brouillet and Meillet and by G. de Mortillet. 

Great quantities of flint nuclei of large dimensions had been 
left along the margins of their fields by the peasants, who dubbed 
these relics of a bygone age livres de beurre (pounds of butter). 
The nuclei were so numerous as to be a serious hindrance to field 
cultivation (Fig. 280). In addition to the nuclei, flint blades of 
exceptional length and other Neolithic flint implements of various . 
kinds are found. Mixed with these there occur flint cleavers of 
the Acheulian type. 


THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD 65 


On account of its attractive color and quality, Pressigny 
flint became an important article of Neolithic commerce. Thanks 
to its exceptional color, the extent of the trade in Pressigny flint 
can easily be traced geographically. Examples have _ been 
found in 443 communes of France. They are reported as far south 
as Tarn-et-Garonne, to the east as far even as Switzerland and 
Italy, to the north in the Ardennes and Belgium, and to the north- 
west in Brittany. 





Fic. 280. LARGE NUCLEI OF BEESWAX FLINT, SO CALLED BECAUSE OF ITS COLOR, 
FROM GRAND-PRESSIGNY, INDRE-ET-LOIRE. 


Commercial flint in this form was produced by the ton from the Grand-Pressigny work- 
shops during the Neolithic Period. Scale, }, with the exception of No. 1 which is 4. After 
Henri Martin. 


Traffic in this flint does not seem to have existed prior to the 
Neolithic Period; it has never been found in Paleolithic stations, 
even those near-by such as the cave of La Roche-Cotard near 
Langeais and the caves of the Layon in Anjou. If the Paleolithic 
hunters made use of this flint, and there are surface indications 
that they did, it was for local consumption only. Saint-Venant 
is authority for the statement that commerce in Pressigny flint 
persisted into the Bronze Age, at least through the first part of 
it; evidence of this is afforded by specimens found in the dolmens 


66 HUMAN ORIGINS 


of Brittany and the Cévennes, also in a number of Swiss lake vil- 
lages including Fenil ( Vinelz) and Sutz in Bienne and Saint-Blaise 
(Neuchatel). 

In the communes of Laizé, Clessé, and Charbonniéres (Macon- 
nais), extending for several kilometers along the banks of the 
Mouge, there existed important flint workshops. Judging from the 
numerous cleavers of the Acheulian type, workshop activity might 
have been inaugurated here in Paleolithic times; it certainly con- 
tinued through a part of the Neolithic Period. 

The Graig-lwyd site, Penmznmawr, Wales, is a combination of 
quarry and workshop and in many respects is comparable with the 
well-known stations of Cissbury and Grime’s Graves. At these 
latter the material utilized is flint, while at Graig-lwyd the material 
is felsite, an intrusive igneous rock which forms the high crags of 
Graig-lwyd. With the exception of the summit, the ax-working 
sites are situated for the most part on the shales below the domi- 
nating crags; the workmen evidently made use of the fallen blocks. 

Hazzledine Warren’s diggings were confined chiefly to two 
spots, Floor A on the German prisoner’s path and Floor B on 
the slopes at an elevation of 228.75 meters (750 feet O.D.), just 
at the foot of the scree below the original position of the crag 
itself. At this site a large majority of the axes found are thin- 
poled, the pointed-pole type being comparatively rare. The pointed 
pole is the older form, and both antedate the epoch of the dolmens. 
No pottery was found; if any had existed its chances for preser- 
vation in loose scree on an exposed mountain side would have 
been limited. 

A Neolithic workshop of Robenhausian age was discovered 
south of the Forest of Fontainebleau at Villiers-sous-Gres (Seine- 
et-Marne). At the station known as La Vignette, an excellent 
quality of lustrous gritstone was exploited. Among the specimens 
found there Capitan mentions nuclei, scrapers, hammerstones, anvil 
stones, paring knives, blanks for axes, and a species of tool with 
one plain unworked face and one raised and completely chipped, 
and vaguely formed triangular and quadrangular prisms. 

In 1921 A. de Mortillet described a workshop (Saint-Prix) in 
the Forest of Montmorency, near Paris, similar in every respect 
to La Vignette. The raw material is gritstone, and the imple- 


THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD 67 


ments made of it are enough like those from La Vignette to have 
been the product of the same workmen. ‘The rough drafts for 
axes from both La Vignette and Saint-Prix have their counter- 
parts in many French Neolithic stations. This is true of certain 
of the Dordogne sites, especially La Merigode, also of the big 
workshops of Vienne and Champignolles (near Gisors). 


LAKE DWELLINGS 


Ever since man (or his precursor) lived in trees and disputed 
with wild beasts the possession of caves, the housing problem has 
had its serious aspects. Safety and comfort have always been 
the chief desiderata. Ways of attaining these have depended, in 
part at least, on local conditions. In a country of lakes and dense 
forests, lake dwellings would have the double advantage of being 
naturally well lighted and of being provided with a ready-to-hand 
water highway. Such dwellings also brought their occupants near 
to the ready means of sewage and refuse disposal, and served the 
added purpose of attracting fish and facilitating the catching of 
them. Moreover, lake dwellings offer an easy means of defense, 
partly because of their open situation. 

Pile houses were built also in swamp lands and over streams. 
It is highly probable that they were likewise built on the solid land 
as a means of security against the ravages of rodents. Prehistoric 
pile structures on land however, have decayed, leaving no trace 
of their former existence, so we are indebted to those built over 
water and in swamps and bogs for the data that have made it 
possible to reconstruct the prehistoric pile dwelling (Fig. 1). 

The use of the pile dwelling was widely distributed over Europe 
during the latter part of the Neolithic Period and the Age of Metals 
which followed. The principal center of this type of culture was 
Switzerland and the adjacent countries of southern Germany, Jura 
and Savoy in France, northern Italy, and Austria. The structures 
were quadrilateral and often were grouped in villages of consider- 
able size. Several hundred pile-village sites have been discovered 
in Switzerland alone since the exceptional drought of 1853-54 
brought the first one to light. 


68 HUMAN ORIGINS 


Some stations were inhabited during both the Neolithic and 
the Bronze Age; others date wholly from the Neolithic or wholly 
from the Bronze Age, the latter stations being farther from the 
shore. In some cases the same name is applied both to a Neolithic 
station and to a near-by Bronze Age station. Rarely have they 





Fic. 281. HAFTED STONE IMPLEMENTS FROM THE NEOLITHIC PILE VILLAGE OF FONT, 
LAKE NEUCHATEL, SWITZERLAND. 


Photograph by Tschumi. 


been found in Europe to persist into the Iron Age or subsequent 
epochs. According to Peake, the pile villages of England are 
limited to the Ages of Bronze and Iron. 

The terremare of the Po valley are low, flat hillocks which owe 
their existence to pile dwellings built on land but protected by water 


Pin gt 


THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD 


69 


artificially regulated. Over one hundred belonging to the Bronze 
Age have been explored thus far. The crannogs of Scotland and 
Ireland are also pile dwellings or stockaded islands. 


All three classes of stations resemble the lake 
dwellings of certain primitive peoples living to-day 
in various parts of the world (Philippine Islands, 
Celebes, Nicobar Islands, and certain parts of 
Africa). In all three, conditions for the preserva- 
tion of objects common to the daily life of the lake 
dwellers are exceptionally good. Our knowledge 
of the manner in which many tools and weapons 
were hafted, of the textile industry, and of the 
grain cultivated is largely due to these pile-dwell- 
ing deposits (Figs. 281 and 282). 

The great drought of 1920-21 was a period 
of unusual activity in the exploration of pile vil- 
lages. The waters were so low as to expose to 
view lake-dwelling remains never before visible. 
Stations previously described as isolated and sepa- 
rate units were found to be connected, proving the 
existence of pile villages much greater in extent 
than had hitherto been suspected. As examples 
one need only cite Corcelettes on Lake Neuchatel 
and Saint-Sulpice on Lake Geneva near Lausanne. 

Vouga took advantage of the low water to 
make important excavations and observations at 
certain stations on Lake Neuchatel, notably at 
Auvernier and Saint-Aubin. The conclusions he 
has been able to draw relative to culture sequence 
are apparently of far-reaching consequence. At 
Auvernier, Cortaillod, and Saint-Aubin, he found 
a basal Neolithic deposit separated from super- 





Fic. 282. HAFtTEep 
FLINT DAGGER FROM 
THE NEOLITHIC PILE 
VILLAGE OF VINELZ, 
LAKE OF BIENNE, 
SWITZERLAND. 


Photograph by 
Tschumi. 


posed Neolithic deposits by 60 centimeters (23.6 inches) of sterile 
sand. The flint implements from this low level at all three stations 
are made of a dark, translucent variety not employed in the later 


horizons. This early Neolithic level in all three 


stations is also 


characterized by a peculiar type of staghorn socket for stone axes 
and by well baked pottery of a fine quality. The staghorn socket 


70 HUMAN ORIGINS 


has no shoulder. In the middle Neolithic deposit, the staghorn 
sockets for axes have a well developed shoulder, and the pottery 
is cruder than at the lower level. In the third culture-bearing level 
(late Neolithic) from the bottom, the pottery is crude; the stag- 
horn sockets have a shoulder and may also have a cleft base (Fig. 
283). At the fourth level from the bottom (Eneolithic) are found 





Fic. 283. THREE TYPES OF STAGHORN SOCKETS FOR AXES, FROM THE PILE VILLAGE 
OF VINELZ, SWITZERLAND, 


These distinct types characterize the three successive culture levels in the Neolithic 
pile villages. Numbering from left to right starting with the upper row the types are 
divided as follows: No. 1, first or oldest type without shoulder; Nos. 2-5, second type 


with shoulder; Nos. 6, 7, 9, 10, 12, third type with shoulder and cleft base. Photograph 
by Tschumi. 


the first copper objects associated with flints from Grand-Pressigny 
(Indre-et-Loire). The supposition is that the copper, like the 
Pressigny flints, was an importation from the west. 7 
By the way of recapitulation, Vouga’s contribution to Swiss 
lake-village culture may be summed up as follows: : 


THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD 71 


AUVERNIER: BEVAIX: 
7. Eneolithic 7. Eneolithic 
6. Sterile layer 6. Sterile layer 
5. Upper Neolithic 5. Upper Neolithic 
4. Sterile layer 4. Sterile layer 
3. Middle Neolithic 3. Middle Neolithic 
Bettie layer (60 centi- 


meters ) 
1. Early Neolithic 


CORTAILLOD: SAINT-AUBIN: 
5. Recent Neolithic 


4. Sterile layer 

3. Middle Neolithic 3. Middle Neolithic 

eeoreric layer (60 centi- Ome stcrilesdka v6.7 (00 centi- 
meters ) meters ) 

1. Early Neolithic 1. Early Neolithic 


COMPOSITE SECTION: 

7. Eneolithic. First copper ; flints imported from Grand- ASUS 
western France. 

6. Sterile layer. 

5. Upper Neolithic. Crude pottery with nonperforate protuber- 
ances; staghorn sockets with shoulder, also with cleft 
base. 

4. Sterile layer. 

3. Middle Neolithic. Crude pottery without ornament and with 
nonperforate protuberances; staghorn sockets with 
shoulder. 

@eesterue layer. 

1. Early Neolithic. Fine pottery with perforate protuberances ; 
staghorn sockets without shoulder ; dark, translucent flints 
with unilateral chipping. 


By early Neolithic in this connection is meant the early phase 
of the pile-village epoch of the Neolithic Period. It is of interest 
to note that in this lowest Neolithic level at Saint-Aubin, Vouga 
found a piece of wood hewn into a curve at one end; the straight 
base is highly polished as if the piece had been a sled runner. 

The principal Swiss Neolithic stations are: Obermeilen 
(Zurich) ; Moosseedorf (Moossee); Robenhausen (Pfaffikon) ; 


i HUMAN ORIGINS 


Schafis (or Chavannes), Moringen, and Vinelz (Bienne ); Auver- 
nier, Bevaix, Cortaillod, Font, and Saint-Aubin (Neuchatel). The 
well-known Bronze Age stations include: Morges (Geneva) ; 
Auvernier, Corcelettes, Cortaillod, and Estavayer (Neuchatel) ; 
Moringen (Bienne); and Wollishofen (Zurich); according to 
Viollier these stations do not antedate Bronze Age III. At Moos- 
seedorf there are harpoons and microliths suggesting the Azilian 
and ‘Tardenoisian. 

Neolithic lake dwellers were fond of pendants made from ani- 
mal foot bones (metatarsals) perforated for suspension, also per- 
forated teeth and pendants of horn. At Concise II were found 
numerous amulets cut from the human cranium and perforated 
(one, two, three, or more holes); the margins were cut smooth. 
Some twenty examples are to be seen in the museum at Berne. 
Cranial drinking cups similar to those from Le Placard have been 
found in Neolithic pile villages of Schafis, Locras, and Sutz. 

Neolithic lake dwellers of Switzerland developed the textile 
art to a high degree. They knew how to decorate their cloth 
with embroidery, conventional designs being employed for the 
most part. 

All of the lake dwellings reported from various parts of Eng- 
land are said to be post-Neolithic. Reginald A. Smith has located 
a number in Yorkshire; lake dwellings of a similar kind have been 
discovered in Newbury in Berkshire. In 1851 and again in 1856 
remains of lake dwellings were found in the Thetford meres of 
Suffolk. One of the best known is the lake village of Glastonbury 
(Somerset), dating from the late Iron Age. 

Schmidt, Reinerth, and Kraft have been able to throw much 
new light on pile- and moor-village construction through recent 
explorations of the moors surrounding the slowly receding shores 
of the now much diminished Federsee. They find that during the 
third, or lake-village, epoch of the Neolithic Period, villages were 
built on piles and also directly on the moors without the pile sub- 
structure. In both types, the dwellings were alike in being large 
and built of heavy materials. The walls were composed of upright 
slabs. 

The ground plan was rectanguiar and covered an area of 72 
to 80 square meters (87.12 to 96.8 square yards). It was divided 


THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD mS 


into a rather large uncovered platform, a small combination work- 
room and kitchen with hearth and hand mill, and a combination 
living and bedroom with fireplace, loom, beds, etc. The two 
rooms were covered by a high-gabled roof with single ridgepole. 
The walls inside were plastered with clay and the chinks between 
the slabs on the outside were filled in with clay. 

At a somewhat later phase of the Neolithic Period, the moor 
dwellings were much smaller and built of lighter materials. At 
one station Schmidt found a superposition showing, in section, 
underneath, a large pile dwelling, and above it a small moor dwell- 
ing. At the lower level there once lived a northern race; at the 
upper level, a Mediterranean race. The plan of the Neolithic pile 
and moor dwelling is the same as that of the four-sided houses 
at Troy. The so-called blockhouse of the log-cabin type did not 
appear until the Age of Metals. The Neolithic pile and moor 
villages were built of oak, beech, and birch, the later blockhouses 
of pine. 

The Neolithic pile ines of Bodman on Lake Constance cov- 
ered an area of some 410 by 50 meters (1,343 by 163 feet) and 
the number of piles driven into the ground is estimated at 61,500. 
The builders of pile villages preferred a muddy bottom into which 
the piles might the more easily be driven. Once the piles were in 
place, stones were dropped about them to keep them more securely 
in position. Forked piles held the sills which supported the floors, 
made of small tree trunks either split (10 to 15 centimeters in 
diameter) or whole. The floors were carpeted with birch bark. 

The principal Neolithic pile villages recently explored by 
Schmidt and his colleagues are in the basin of the Federsee, near 
Schussenried (Wurttemberg), namely, Riedschachen, Aichbuhl, 
and Buchau-Dullenried. It was the author’s good fortune to assist 
at the excavation of a Neolithic pile dwelling at Riedschachen in 
August, 1922, and later to visit the pile village at Unter-Uhldingen 
(Baden) on Lake Constance, reconstructed by Schmidt along the 
same lines that were employed by the Neolithic builders at Ried- 
schachen (Fig. 284). For land villages belonging to the same 
epoch, the reader is referred to the station of Grossgartach, near 
Heilbronn. 

It has been mentioned that the pile villages of the Bronze Age 


74 HUMAN ORIGINS 


are farther from the present shore line than those of the Neolithic 
Period. This circumstance is probably due, not so much to better 
facilities for construction and for better protection, as to the fact, 
pointed out by C. A. Weber, that the driest period of postglacial 
times was contemporaneous with the Bronze Age in Switzerland. 





Fic. 284. RECONSTRUCTION OF A GROUP OF NEOLITHIC PILE DWELLINGS AT UNTER 
UHLDINGEN, ON LAKE CONSTANCE, GERMANY. 


In the construction of a lake village, thousands of piles were driven into the mud at the 
bottom of the lake. The piles were often strengthened by stones heaped about them or 
by connecting braces. Cross beams were then fastened to the tops of the piles and round 
timbers laid across them and a layer of mud and gravel or of bark completed the floor. 
Piles of extra length were the main supports about which the rest of the huts were con- 
structed. In every house was a hearth. The reconstruction illustrated above, which is 
based on data secured through recent investigations, shows a communal (left) and a 
private house (right). The railing which guards the approach did not exist in the original. 
After R. R. Schmidt. 


It is therefore conceivable and highly probable that the Bronze 
‘Age pile villages were built in water no deeper than that en- 
countered by Neolithic pile-village builders. The Bronze Age pile 
dwellings were of the blockhouse type, as were those of the Iron 
Age. 

At Buchau, near Schussenried, Schmidt has uncovered a Hall- 


THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD 75 


statt (early Iron Age) village on a peninsula surrounded by two 
series of palisades. Just inside the inner palisade Schmidt found 
several hundred complete pottery vases, a lot of bronze rings 
(money), etc. The dwellings are of the blockhouse (log-cabin) 
type with a ground plan in the Mediterranean style. The house 
proper is built around three sides of an open court, one in line 
with its axis and the other two at right angles to the same. These 
two approaches separate the house proper from its two adjuncts, 
the stable and the service house. 

During the seasons of 1916-19 the staff of the museum at 
Zurich explored an important pile village dating from the close 
of Bronze Age IV, situated on the Alpine Quai in that city. 
Among the objects recovered were bronze axes with wings, lance 
heads, socketed chisels, knives, razors, belts, bracelets, and pins 
of bronze; a bronze bridle bit with rattles attached, the whole 
thought to have been in one piece (broken or limber bit) ; bronze 
fishhooks, bronze vessels, spheroidal grooved and pitted stones; 
stone molds, including those for making the small rings that were 
used as a medium for exchange; polished stone hatchets, basketry, 
implements made of goat vertebrae (dorsal spine) and employed 
in the textile industry; wooden mallets; symbolic wooden horns 
in pairs; symbolic clay horns in pairs, and many other ceramic 
objects, including shallow bowls with incised geometric ornament 
inside, round-bodied vases with or without handles, perforated 
vases (openwork), effigy figures, rests for vessels, spindle whorls, 
spools in shape like those still employed, a large disk perforated 
at the center, probably a part of a fire-making apparatus. More 
than two thousand pottery vessels were found. 

In 1917 Sulzberg discovered a Neolithic pile village in a bog 
at Weiher near Thayngen and has since explored it thoroughly. 


POTTERY 


Paleolithic cave man modeled in clay, but he was not a potter. 
Neolithic races were the first to take root directly in the soil, to 
become independent of the aberrant food supply on which the 
Paleolithic hunter and fisher had to depend. This was made pos- 
sible largely through the domestication of animals and plants, the 


70 HUMAN ORIGINS 


development of agriculture, and the growth of the textile and cera- 
mic arts. One of the first needs occasioned by such a change in 
the mode of life was for containing vessels, particularly those ot 
an impermeability sufficient to contain liquids. 

Among primitive human inventions, no other, with the possible 
exception of textiles, is so admirably adapted to serve both utili- 
tarian and artistic purposes. Both pottery and textiles are the 
product of Neolithic culture; which of these two branches of 
human activity was developed first it would be difficult to say. 
Of the two, pottery requires a more sedentary mode of life on 
account of its fragility; again, the art of firing vessels of clay 
might have been discovered by placing an outside coating of clay 
on a basket in order to protect its bottom from the fire. In any 
event, the twin arts of pottery and weaving were among the early 
offspring of Neolithic culture. 

The art of making clay paste, of tempering it, of fashioning 
it into vesicular forms, and of firing the same, must have had its 
origin early in the Neolithic Period. At first the paste was crude 
and the methods of firing the products were primitive. Improve- 
ment came with time and experience, and with it a taste for, and 
a skill in, ceramic decoration. The evolution of ceramic forms 
went hand in hand with improvement in the character of the 
paste employed. The potter’s wheel was unknown. In western 
Europe the ornamentation was confined to figures incised, in relief, 
or in the round. In Egypt and in southeastern Europe painted 
pottery made its appearance. Pottery for ordinary domestic use 
seems to have been made locally in practically all Neolithic vil- 
lages where the necessary materials could be obtained. Pottery 
making was, as it is to-day among primitive races, evidently 
woman’s work. 

Clays.—The Neolithic potter knew nothing of the complex 
chemical and physical problems involved in the making of his 
product. He learned slowly by experience that certain clays were 
better than others for his purposes. The need of a tempering 
material for his paste never entered his head. Fortunately for him, 
the clay generally contained approximately what was required; 
when it did not, the result was simply a failure and the experi- 
menter began over again. 


THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD 77 


Franchet has examined a large number of common clays of 
the kinds that have been employed in every age by every people 
in the manufacture of pottery, and he always was able to detect 
the presence of nonplastic elements, especially sand, and in most 
cases in such a quantity that the crude clay constituted an excel- 
lent ceramic paste without its being necessary to add any other 
tempering ingredient. Clays that can be employed just as they 
are found in nature are not the exceptions but are met with fre- 
quently. It is thus practically certain that prehistoric pastes were 
often not the object of any special preparation whatsoever, nor was 
there added to them any tempering material. The primitive pot- 
ters utilized clays that were found in the immediate vicinity of 
their settlements, profiting by the inherent natural hazards; they 
possessed no special formulae for the composition of their pastes. 

Paste.—In addition to the water of constitution which all clays 
possess, more water must be added to obtain a clay paste; while 
this water remains in the mass of the clay, the latter is soft, non- 
resistant, and difficult to handle. It often happens that the clay, 
especially if it is composed of very fine elements, possesses so 
much plasticity that it adheres to the hands of the potter, making 
it impossible to work the clay. When the paste is too plastic, too 
compact, or too fine, it is apt to crack with the greatest ease, not 
only when it is exposed to the fire, but even during the prelimi- 
nary drying in the open air. It is necessary, therefore, to diminish 
on the one hand the excess of plasticity by the introduction of 
nonplastic material (tempering ingredient), and on the other the 
excess of fineness by means of coarser materials. 

It is very doubtful if the primitive potter made use of non- 
plastic materials from the beginning; it is more than probable that 
he made use of clay just as it was found, with whatever impuri- 
ties it might contain. Among these impurities quartz sand nearly 
always occurs, constituting a natural tempering medium. At all 
events, whenever the nonplastic element consists of quartz sand, 
it is almost impossible to know whether its introduction was inten- 
tional or not. 

Quartz sand and limestone, both often found naturally in the 
clay, were among the chief primitive tempering ingredients; the 
débris of shells was likewise often employed. At a very early 


78 HUMAN ORIGINS 


epoch use was made of small fragments of pottery which had al- 
ready been baked. Pulverized charcoal, which is to be found in 
many kinds of prehistoric pottery, likewise constitutes a very good 
tempering medium, although it was probably employed for another 
purpose. Finally, mention should be made of certain other ma- 
terials, very rarely employed, such as chopped straw and various 
minerals of rocks which the potters found in their neighborhood, 
minerals which varied according to the nature of the land in 
question. 

Technique.—During the Bronze Age, especially towards its 
close, the technique became perfected; for certain pastes, especially 
in the pottery of the lake dwellings, testify to a fineness which 
presupposes the preparation of the clay by washing—washing no 
doubt of a rudimentary character destined perhaps to eliminate only 
the coarser materials which would interfere with the later incised 
and other decorations. When the western potters had reached this 
point, the eastern potters already possessed much more perfect 
ceramic pastes. Nevertheless, when it is said that in a certain 
country and at a certain epoch the paste of potters presents a 
fineness denoting a very advanced technique, one must not suppose 
that all the pottery of that region and time is fine; for in every 
country and in every epoch one finds simultaneously pottery with 
crude paste and pottery with fine paste. Even the Greeks, who 
have given us such splendid pottery, made cruder pottery at the 
same time for domestic use. 

The primitive method of building a vessel began with the shap- 
ing of a bit of paste into a disk for the base. This was placed on 
a flat stone or other flat surface, and the walls were carried up 
by adding strips of clay until the rim was reached; very long strips 
were applied in the form of a spiral. The walls were dressed by 
means of the potter’s wet hand and simple finishing tools of wood, 
bone, horn, shell, etc. With the body completed, the potter pro- 
ceeded to the trimming, that is to say, the placing of handles, 
spouts, relief ornaments stuck on with a little slip (a batter made 
of diluted paste). | 

Decoration.—The pottery of the Neolithic lake dgailines re- 
veals a very interesting process of decoration which consisted in 
the application of the bark of trees. This decoration continued 


THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD 79 


into the Age of Bronze. Metal, both tin and bronze, was employed 
as a decoration; these metallic decorations may still be found 
among certain primitive peoples of Asia and Africa. The decora- 
tion of pottery is often bound up with its impermeability. 

The various methods of decoration are: 


1. Smoothing by means of the wet hand. 

2. Polishing by means of an instrument of horn, shell, or wood, 
but only on pastes made of fine elements. 

. Blackening of the paste by the introduction of pulverized char- 
coal or otherwise. 

. Giving luster by rubbing the pottery. 

. Glazing. 

. Incised decoration either before or after baking. 

. Relief decoration. 

. Incrusted decoration. 

. Appliqué decoration. 

. Painted decoration. 

Si werslip: 


oN) 


a 
=e OO ON Ow 


_ 


The coloration of ceramic pastes may be considered as an ele- 
ment of decoration, for example in the black Etruscan ware, and 
even in certain Neolithic pottery. The paste may be colored nat- 
urally, in consequence of the presence of metallic oxides contained 
in its constituents, or colored accidentally by the addition of certain 
substances. 

Primitive peoples employed three quite distinct techniques to 
obtain their black pottery. 

1. In the charcoal pottery the paste is colored black throughout 
its mass and only slightly baked. By rubbing the surface the pot- 
tery becomes brilliant but does not possess the characteristic luster 
of smoked pottery; moreover, the black tone of charcoal pottery 
conserves a slightly grayish tint which is the more evident when 
this pottery is placed beside smoked pottery. The charcoal pottery 
was obtained by mixing pulverized charcoal with the paste. In 
addition, the low degree at which it was baked indicates that the 
heat did not surpass 550° C. and was hence very slightly reducing, 
and probably oxidizing, since the surface of the pottery does not 
become lustrous by rubbing, as the smoked pottery does. 


80 HUMAN ORIGINS 


The manufacture of black paste by the introduction of charcoal 
seems to have been in use especially during the Neolithic Period. 
This paste was, no doubt, more brilliant after being rubbed, the 
brilliancy being obtained by rubbing the paste before it was baked, 
by means of an instrument of wood, horn, or bone. The paste 
must present at least two special conditions: it must be very fine 
and somewhat hydrous. If too humid, the clay particles would be 
constantly displaced under the action of rubbing so that the sur- 
face would be too unstable to be polished. If, on the other hand, 
the paste is too dry, it would become reduced to powder under the 
action of rubbing, thus giving a mat surface. 

Smoked pottery, even when made of coarse pastes, acquires 
under rubbing a remarkable brilliancy resembling luster. Smoked 
pottery may be subdivided into: 

2. Pottery smoked in the mass, in which the paste is entirely 
colored black. To obtain this result it was necessary to expose 
the pottery from the very beginning of the making to the action 
of a very intense smoke. The most remarkable pottery smoked 
in the mass in spite of its low degree of baking is, without doubt, 
the Etruscan pottery that goes by the name of buchero nero. 

3. Superficially smoked pottery. Among the primitive pottery 
we find a peculiar type, the paste of which is generally much 
baked and superficially covered on the exterior and interior by a 
very black coat which becomes brilliant on being rubbed. On 
breaking a piece of pottery of this kind one sees that the coat 
penetrates the paste only to a very slight depth, the center being 
simply colored brown.or gray. Pottery of this kind is met with in 
South America, especially in Peru. 

The slip, which plays such an important role in the history of 
ceramics, is an argillaceous earth, often a clay without the addition 
of any other material. It is applied by wetting or steeping, form- 
ing a very thin layer on the surface of the pottery. Its principal 
object is to hide the color of the paste, but it often constitutes a 
veritable element of decoration when, for example, it is placed 
only on certain parts of the vase or when it is employed for the 
decoration in relief. 

Molds.—Molds were used at a rather ancient epoch. Molding 
is done by applying the paste against the walls of an object whose 


THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD 81 


form it is sought to reproduce. The paste can be applied either 
to the exterior or the interior of the mold, but in the latter case 
it is necessary that the mold be made in such a way that the piece 
can be extricated from the mold. Nevertheless, there are primitive 
ceramic pieces that were molded but that, by their form, indicate 
that they could not have been withdrawn from the mold (in case 
of a hollow mold), or that the latter could not have been ex- 
tricated from the piece (in cases where the latter had been made 
by the application of the paste to the external surface of the mold). 
This peculiarity indicates that the mold was made of a material 
susceptible of being destroyed by the fire: the pieces as well as the 
mold were baked together. These molds were composed, for 
example, of fruits, of wooden objects, or of basketwork. 

The Potter's Wheel.—One of the greatest improvements in the 
ceramic industry was the invention of the potter’s wheel. The 
wheel not only facilitates the shaping of the pieces, but gives to 
them at the same time a regularity and symmetry which it would 
be very difficult to obtain otherwise; besides, the mechanical action 
of the workman modeling his piece during the rotating movement 
gives to the paste an absolute homogeneity. 

Certain Cretan pottery of the Bronze Age would seem to indi- 
cate that the wheel appeared in the Orient during that Age, but 
we are not yet able to say just when it was introduced into western 
Europe. One may obtain a fair idea of the first wheels by study- 
ing those in use among living primitive races. The wheel in use 
among the natives of the lower Congo sheds light on what might 
have been the origin of the potter’s wheel. On a flat clay surface 
firmly packed and hardened by fire, a quadrangular board about 
5 centimeters (2 inches) thick is solidly attached by four pins of 
hardwood, one at each corner. This forms a fixed tabular surface. 
At the center of this surface is a perforation in which fits a strong 
cylindrical pin deeply sunk into the clay beneath and rising some 
2 or 3 centimeters (0.8 to 1.2 inches) above the upper surface of 
the table. This pin forms a pivot of rotation. A little wedge 
set in a groove keeps the pin from moving. Upon this absolutely 
immovable system fits the plate. This is round in form and thick, 
with a round socket at the center passing halfway through the plate 
and fitting over the head of the pin. The lower surface of the 


82 HUMAN ORIGINS 


plate, therefore, rests lightly on the upper tabular surface beneath, 
and rotates without much friction when the plate is set in motion 
by the hand. This rudimentary wheel is in reality very much like 
the primitive tournette still found in Brittany. 

All primitive peoples who still have no knowledge of the wheel 
and shape the piece entirely by hand, take care to choose as a rest 
for the vase either a flat stone or a thick board. The potter sooner 
or later must have noticed that instead of causing the piece to turn 
on the stone or board, it would be more simple to give to this 
support a rotating movement, and thus the primitive wheel such as 
used in the lower Congo had its origin. The fixed board became 
the rotating plate put in motion by the hand. Then came the 
second improvement: the pivot of rotation was lengthened, the 
plate became fixed, and the lower tabular surface became movable, 
the motive power being the foot. 

The tournette, ancestor of the wheel, seems to have been in 
common use in the Orient, and the ruins of Thebes have revealed 
to us in a series of pictures that the Egyptians also made use of it. 
One still finds in Brittany, especially at Quimper, the ancient pot- 
ter’s wheel. It is much lower than the modern wheels, and the 
rotating part is the wheel of a vehicle, which causes the workman 
to give to the apparatus its rotating movement, not with the foot, 
but with a pole held in the hands. 

The discovery of the potter’s wheel caused a great revolution 
in ceramic art, not only because this apparatus permitted the potter 
to work rapidly at the same time giving to the vessel its correct 
contour, but especially because it helped him to vary the forms in 
a most remarkable manner. Among the diverse ceramic types there 
is one which, more than any other, has taxed the sagacity of 
archeologists by the persistence with which it is found throughout 
the entire world and dating from various epochs: it is the cup- 
shaped vase, the point of departure of every form created on the 
wheel. It is the shape that the potter would naturally produce if 
he were given a wheel and told to make a vessel for the first time. 
This is not true, however, of modeled forms. 

Baking.—We do not have precise documents concerning the 
processes of baking employed in prehistoric times, but we can gather 
some information concerning it from (1) the physical character of 


THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD 83 


the pastes, (2) their chemical character, and (3) data gathered 
from living barbaric races. The supposed existence of very primi- 
tive pottery simply dried in the sun is hardly admissible, because a 
pottery the clay of which still contains its water of constitution, is 
not adapted to domestic use. We know that prehistoric pottery in 
general was very little baked, but the baking was sufficient to 
eliminate the water of constitution, which disappears at a tempera- 
ture between 400° and 500°, that is to say, around nascent red. 
The only class of ceramic products employed in an unbaked state 
among primitive peoples is brick. 

Of the three methods of arranging pieces destined to be sub- 
jected to the action of fire, the Neolithic potters made use of but 
one; they simply piled the pieces together, one on another, without 
order. ‘This method was probably in use until the discovery of 
glazing. It could be employed not only in baking in the open air, 
but also in a furnace. Heierli noted at Rumlaug near Zurich a 
ceramic factory, dating from the close of the Neolithic Period, 
which contained a hearth represented by an oval pit 2 meters long 
by 1.5 meters wide (6.6 by 4.9 feet). Giraux found a pit some- 
what similar in the department of Seine-et-Marne. The existence 
of these pits does not tell us very much in itself; but if we compare 
them with what we see among primitive peoples of Africa and 
America, their meaning becomes more clear. In the lower Congo 
the hearth is ordinarily an excavation in the soil. In South America 
the baking takes place in the open air without a furnace and without 
any other envelope than the burning wood. Sometimes the pieces 
are piled in a rather shallow pit sunk in the soil; in Brazil, however, 
a pit is dug deep enough so that the largest vase can stand erect 
without being above the level of the ground; the pit is filled with 
branches which are then burned. 

As regards the use of bellows, seen in certain parts of the 
Congo, Franchet does not believe they were used during the Neo- 
lithic Period, for their use would have prevented reduction, and 
we know that prehistoric pottery, from its nature, was actually 
baked in a reducing fire. Baking in a pit already represents some 
progress, because we find among primitive peoples processes which 
are still more rudimentary. In Kabyl the pots are piled up on the 
surface of the earth, one against the other, and baked in the open 


84 HUMAN ORIGINS 


air. Among the Mandja of the French Congo the pots are placed 
on the surface of the earth in a slip which is then surrounded by 
branches; the baking lasts a day, after which the pots are removed 
by means of a stick while still very hot. The first improvement in 
the method of baking, as already mentioned, was evidently the bak- 
ing in a pit or excavation. 

Among the operations necessary in the manufacture of pottery, 
there are three of prime importance: (1) drying; (2) heating to 
remove the water of constitution; (3) baking. If pottery contain- 
ing a large quantity of water is suddenly exposed to the fire, the 
water is too rapidly converted into vapor, causing the pottery to 
crack. It is indispensable, therefore, that the drying processes 
should be slow in proportion as the pieces are thick. They are first 
placed in the shade; then as the paste hardens, the pottery is ex- 
posed to the sun, where the drying process is completed. ‘This 
process of drying in the open air is at least the one that was, and 
that still is, employed by all potters using primitive methods. 

After the drying in the open air, which eliminates the paste 
water and at the same time produces a diminution of the volume 
of the paste, one proceeds to the heating for the purpose of remoy- 
ing the water of constitution (an intermediate state between the 
unbaked and the baked), requiring a temperature of above 400° C. 
After this the vessel loses its plasticity and becomes porous. The 
baking, properly so-called, has for its purpose the combining of the 
constituent elements of the paste, giving it special qualities of which 
the first is solidity. In consequence, unbaked pottery may be de- 
fined as pottery merely dried in the open air, not having been sub- 
jected to any fire action and still containing its water of constitu- 
tion; its plasticity can be brought back to it by the addition of 
water. On the other hand, pottery that has been heated to redness, 
causing it to lose its water of constitution, cannot be reconverted to 
a plastic state; although porous, it possesses a certain degree of 
solidity which permits its use for domestic purposes. Finally, baked 
pottery is that in which elements have been combined at least par- 
tially, the baking having reached the stage between 800° and 
1200° C., according to the composition of the paste; baked pottery 
is solid and more or less sonorous according to the more or less per- 
fect combination of its elements. 


THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD 85 


Hence, when the paste of a pottery mixed with water becomes 
plastic, such pottery has never been submitted to the action of fire. 
This test has been tried by Franchet on many sherds of primitive 
pottery, and in every case the pottery proved to have been subjected 
to the action of fire, even Neolithic sherds. During prehistoric 
times the baking was produced at first simply by means of a wood 
fire burning in the open air. In any fire in the open air the flame is 
composed of three principal zones: (1) a central gaseous zone in 
which the combustion is nil and in which the temperature is not at 
all high; (2) a median zone formed of gases, the combustion of 
which is incomplete (this middle zone is rich in carbon monoxide 
and is therefore reducing) ; (3) an exterior zone rich in oxygen 
and in which the combustion is complete, in other words, an oxidiz- 
ing zone. The limit which separates one zone from the other is 
not at all distinct, one grading into the other. The reducing 
zone is yellow and gives off light; the oxidizing zone is blue and 
does not give off light. Heated in contact with air, wood com- 
mences to decompose at 140° C.; in proportion as the temperature 
tises, decomposition increases and different reactions take place: 
carbon combines with oxygen to form carbon monoxide and carbon 
dioxide. In addition, carbon combines with hydrogen. The com- 
bustion of the fire burning in the open air is incomplete because the 
wood is very rich in carbon and because the flame in its upward 
movement does not carry with it a sufficient quantity of air; the 
proof of this is that a part of the carbon is found to be carried 
upward without having been burnt, producing smoke. It is, there- 
fore, comprehensible that pottery baked in the open air finds its 
way into a medium more or less reducing but never completely 
oxidizing. This peculiarity will explain certain characteristic facts 
concerning primitive pottery. 

The custom of firing pottery in the open air ceased to exist three 
or four thousand years ago, at least in certain countries, notably 
in Egypt, Chaldea, and Persia; one has only to examine the pottery 
to see that the furnace or oven was already in use. Combustion in 
the furnace is by no means the same as in the open air; it is more 
complete by reason of the draught produced, by virtue of which 
one can cause a considerable volume of air to penetrate into the 
furnace according to the manner in which the draught is regulated. 


86 HUMAN ORIGINS 


Decoration and Classification —The earliest Neolithic potters 
gave little attention to ornament, which for a long time was con- 
fined to patterns produced by the fingers, to relief decoration, and 
to incised figures. The painting of pottery came much later; in 
fact, painted pottery does not occur in the Neolithic of western 
Europe, though it did make its appearance in southeastern and 
eastern Europe. 

Many attempts have been made at classifying Neolithic pottery, 
but all are based more or less on heterogeneous characters and are 
valid only to a partial degree, if at all. One of the first classifica- 
tions is based, for example, in part on the technique of the decora- 
tion and in part on its style. It recognizes two great groups of 
Neolithic pottery, that with string or cord imprints (Schnur- 
keramik) and that with banded decoration (Bandkeramtk). The 
ornamentation of the first group consists in the application to the 
fresh paste of the string, made of horsehair or plant fiber, firmly 
enough to leave a distinct imprint, the application being in hori- 
zontal series. The ornament is applied by preference to the neck of 
the vessel. The second group comprises pottery ornamented by 
lines or bands either continuous or broken and either incised or 
punctate. The lines or bands thus formed are disposed in such a 
manner as to produce a variety of patterns—chevrons, spirals, wave 
motives, etc. String pottery belongs to the Neolithic Period and 
was widely distributed over central and western Europe from Lake 
Ladoga and East Prussia to England, Spain, and Italy (Fig. 285). 

Pottery with band ornament is likewise spread over a vast terri- 
tory comprising the greater part of Europe. It seems to be lacking 
in the British Isles. As was the case with the string-ornament 
group, the band-ornament group includes many varieties depending 
on both form and ornament, arising from various centers. Au- 
thorities still disagree as to which of the two great groups is the 
older. They agree, however, that neither dates as far back as the 
early Neolithic Period. 

According to Goetze and Reinecke, the pottery with band orna- 
ment belongs to the close of the Neolithic Period and the early 
Bronze Age and is thus essentially later than that with string orna- 
ment. The ornamentation is produced by incised lines forming 
banded patterns and covers practically the whole of the vessel. 


Pies NEOLITHIC PERIOD 87 


Reinerth finds that each type of ceramic ornament goes with a 
special type of stone ax. Both types of ax are perforated for haft- 
ing; the one associated with the ceramic band ornament is short, 
with a thick, rectangular pole, whereas the one associated with the 
string ornament is long and slender with both ends sharpened. 







iy 






(PY NIN 


UTES LEER IELLL 






PPrPrrrn ri niiii 







‘a Cutt mm) M 
SMM 
SRO 
Mwai 





PaXe® 


COUR 


6 OS 






amy 
U 


Fic. 285. EXAMPLES OF NEOLITHIC POTTERY FROM CENTRAL EUROPE. 

a—d, with string ornamentation; e, f, with zonal ornamentation; g, h, with combina- 

tion of string and zonal ornamentation; 7, k, with banded ornamentation; /-n, northwest 

German types; o, p, Bernburg type; gq, globular type; r, s, Rdssen type; t, pile-village 
type; u, Schussenried; v, Mondsee. After Goetze. 

In pottery of the band-ornament type from the pile dwelling at 
Laibach (Carniola), the spiral is wholly lacking. Instead, one finds 
patterns of concentric circles or semicircles. There are also zones 
formed by horizontals and broken by groups of vertical lines. The 
zigzag is a common motive. So far as ceramic ornament is con- 
cerner, Hoernes would place Laibach on a higher plane than 


Butmir. 


88 HUMAN ORIGINS 


It was soon found necessary to subdivide the string-ornament 
group on the basis of form; thus the caliciform or bell-shaped group 
was created. All other forms of string-ornamented pottery, includ- 
ing the amphorette and goblet, retained the original name of the 
group. They have a wide distribution over central and eastern 
Europe. The caliciform group is distinguished from the parent 
group not only by its form but also by its ornamentation and geo- 
graphic distribution. The decoration, which consists of horizontal 
zones, covers the entire vessel instead of stopping two-thirds of the 
way down the side. 





Fic. 286. CALICIFORM VASES FROM FINISTERE. 


That on the left is from the dolmen of Rosmeur, Penmarc’h (height, 14.5 centimeters) ; 
that on the right, from the passage grave of Crugou commune of Plovan (height, 15 centi- 
meters). After du Chatellier. 


Caliciform vases are well-known in France, especially in the 
Pyrenees, Provence, the Seine valley, and Brittany. The passage 
graves of Finistere and Morbihan have yielded fine examples of 
this ceramic type (Fig. 286). Caliciform vases of southern Ger- 
many and southern Scandinavia belong to the last phases of the 
Neolithic Period; in the British Isles, Spain, Portugal, and southern 
France, they are referred to the beginning of the Bronze Age. 
Caliciform pottery is also found in the lower Vistula, the region of 
Budapest, the upper Danube, Czechoslovakia, the Rhine valley, 
and Holland. According to Montelius, it originated in the East, 


THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD 89 


since it resembles certain vases from Asia Minor and Egypt which 
date from 3000 B. C. 

There is one group of pottery distinguished by facilities for sus- 
pension, such as perforate protuberances, holes through the body 
of the vessel near the rim, etc. The group is composed of a variety 
of forms and is found preéminently in northern Germany and 
Scandinavia. 

The Germans distinguish more or less local types, such, for 
example, as the Bernburg, Rossen, and Altheim types. Rossen is 
a Neolithic inhumation cemetery in the Province of Saxony. The 





Fic. 287. POTTERY VASES FROM ROSSEN, DISTRICT OF MERSEBURG, GERMANY. 


Vases of this design are peculiar to Réssen and represent what is called the Rossen 
type. Scale, ca.%. After Schuchardt. 


Rossen type (Fig. 287) is a product due to the mixture of two 
elements, the northern German Bandkeramuik and the Bernburg 
type. 

House urns made their appearance in Scandinavia, Germany, 
Albania, and Italy during the early Iron Age. They are so named 
because of their resemblance to a house with door, roof, etc. A 
combination between the house urn and the face urn is found in 
the region of the Harz Mountains. With the exception of the 
door-like opening on the side, the urn resembles more a human 
effigy than a house (Fig. 288). 

In France Neolithic pottery is chiefly represented by discoveries 
in the dolmens of Brittany and Aveyron and in camps and village 
sites. At the Camp de Chassey (Saone-et-Loire) it is represented 
by a variety of forms. The region of the Pyrenees has yielded a 


90 HUMAN ORIGINS 


special type of pottery with short, teat-shaped legs (Fig. 289) 
which recalls the tripod vases found in large numbers in the second 
city of Hissarlik. 

From the viewpoint of Neolithic ceramic art, Butmir, near 
Sarajevo in Jugoslavia, is perhaps the most important station in 
Europe. The use of the potter's wheel was unknown at Butmir. 
The Butmir potters seem to have specialized in human female clay 
figurines, some repre- 
sented as clothed and 
SOMe MMIC: epee 
figurines were found in 
huts rather than in the 
graves and are obvi- 
ously to be regarded as 
household deities. 
Among the vases there 
are numerous varieties 
of form and ornament, 
many of the spiral and 
wave decorations be- 


si ing extremely beautiful 
Fic. 288. URNS FROM EILSDORF ON THE HUY, ne S k 
GERMANY. EARLY IRON AGE. (Fig. 290). tocky 


These urns are combinations of the house urn and thinks the station of 
face urn, a type found in the region of the Harz Moun- Butmir is no ld 
tains. Photograph by the author, to 





enough to be considered 
the starting point for banded pottery. He had opportunity in 1917 
to make a careful study of all the Butmir material and found frag- 
ments of painted pottery, the presence of which prior to that time 
had not even been suspected; he also points out that at the station 
of Klakari in Bosnia, which is contemporaneous with Butmir, a 
copper arrowhead was found. 

The station of Cucuteni near Jassy in Rumania has yielded some 
remarkable human figurines of clay covered with spiral patterns 
(Fig. 291), also pottery vessels and various implements of stone 
and bone. The presence of a few bronze needles would seem to 
indicate that the station is one of transition between the Neolithic 
Period and the Bronze Age. 

According to A. Stocky, the Neolithic Period in Bohemia is 


THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD 91 


divided into two parts: an older, represented by a purely autoch- 
thonous culture, and a younger, represented by imported cultures. 
The fusion of these imported cultures with the autochthonous gave 
rise to the oldest type of Bronze Age culture, known locally as that 
of Unetice. The early Neolithic Period in Bohemia is character- 
ized by banded pottery and a polished stone ax in the form of a 
smoothing iron; this culture extends easterly into Moravia and 
Silesia, southerly into Lower Austria, and westerly as far as the 





FIG. 289. LATE NEOLITHIC POTTERY VASES WITH TEAT-SHAPED SUPPORTS. 


Nos. 1-3 and 5 are from the Pyrenees; No. 4, from Sardinia; and No. 6, from Bohemia. 
All except No. 2 have short teat-shaped legs. After Pothier and Pic. 


Rhine (Fig. 292). Three steps in the evolution of banded pottery 
can be traced in Bohemia, the third step being the transition to the 
late Neolithic, characterized by pottery with punctate ornament. 
This punctate type of pottery in Bohemia should not be confused 
with the Hinkelstein type; the two groups are analogous but not 
identical. The punctate pottery in Bohemia 1s restricted geograph- 
ically and is to be looked upon as having evolved locally from the 
banded pottery (Fig. 293). 


TEXTILES 


There is no evidence that Paleolithic man had any knowledge 
of the textile art; his clothing of skins was held together by stitch- 


92 HUMAN ORIGINS 


ing done with bone and ivory needles. The textile art, a Neolithic 
invention, includes spinning, netting, knitting, weaving, embroidery, 
and the making of baskets. 

By reason of the perishable nature of the materials employed, 
prehistoric examples of the textile art are extremely rare. The best 
preserved examples are those 
found in the Neolithic lake 
dwellings of Switzerland. In 
the oldest of the three succes- 
sive villages at Robenhausen 
were found not only spindle 
whorls and loom weights: of 
stone and clay, but also 
bundles of raw flax fiber, as 
well as knitted and netted 
fabrics, specimens of loom- 
woven cloth, fine and coarse 
linen thread, twisted string, 
and thick ropes (Fig. 294). 
Spindle whorls and loom 
weights occurred in the upper 
two villages, but for some 
reason all traces of textile 
fabrics themselves had van- 
ished. Both flax and wool 
were employed by the weavers 


Fic. 290. NEOLITHIC POTTERY WITH sprRaL Of the Swiss lake dwellings. 


AND CHEVRON DECORATIONS, FROM Remains of Neolithic tex- 
BUTMIR, JUGOSLAVIA. 





These illustrations represent the dominant lite eee have been found 
types of ceramic ornamentation at Butmir. IM) Switzerland especially at 
PISS SAA UCL: Luscherz, Moosseedorf, Mur- 
ten, Niederwil, Vinelz, and Wangen, in addition to Robenhausen. 
Crochet needles of wood have been reported from Moringen and 
also from Bodman, Lake Constance.. The step from braiding to 
weaving seems to have been easily taken. Examples of both taffeta 
and twill were found at Robenhausen. There was probably a simple 
loom in every household. Examples of both coiled and twined 
basketry have been found at Wangen on Lake Constance. 


THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD 93 


Silk, the only natural and continuous thread (unwound from 
the cocoon of the silkworm in lengths of from 500 to 1,000 meters, 
547.2 to 1094.4 yards), was unknown in Neolithic times. In the 
school of experience primitive man learned by degrees that certain 
vegetal and animal fibers, although relatively short, could be bound 
together by twisting into threads of the required length, thickness, 
and strength. The first process in thread making is the stripping 
and cleaning of the fibers (called scutching); these are next 
straightened by carding; and finally the carded filaments are drawn 





FIG. 291. NEOLITHIC CLAY FIGURINES WITH TATTOO PATTERNS FROM CUCUTENI, 
NEAR JASSY, RUMANIA. 


The tattooing on these figures makes it seem probable that the human body was deco- 
rated in a somewhat similar fashion. Scale, 3. After H. Schmidt, 


out in an even rove and twisted together into continuous thread— 
the so-called spinning process. 

There are extant figures of Greek looms dating back to 500 B.C. 
in which the loom weights and other tools are similar to those from 
the lake dwellings. One may assume that the Neolithic loom was 
similar to and hardly less primitive than those figured by the early 
Greeks (Fig. 295). 

Practically nothing is known of the number and kind of gar- 
ments worn by either sex during the Neolithic Period. If one may 
be permitted to draw conclusions from certain rock paintings in 
Spain (Cogul and elsewhere), which probably date from the early 
Neolithic, women wore skirts fitting snugly at the waist and around 
the hips and short enough to reveal the calves of the legs (Fig. 


138). 


94 HUMAN ORIGINS 


ARTICLES OF PERSONAL ADORNMENT 


The love of personal adornment probably dates as far back as 
the Mousterian Epoch. At La Quina one finds faceted masses 
of oxide of manganese, the coloring matter probably having been 
employed as a body paint. The Cro-Magnons made use of mineral 
colors in their mural art and no doubt also corporeally. Neolithic 
sepultures and village sites have yielded quantities of mineral colors, 
which were obviously applied to the 
body for zesthetic or martial reasons. 
If the human skin were imperish- 
able, it would have much to reveal 
in regard to its treatment down the 
ages. Bearing on this subject are 
the clay figurines from Cucuteni 
near Jassy, Rumania, and from a 
Thracian tumulus near Philippopoli. 
The patterns on these figurines repre- 
sent painting or tattooing (Fig. 
291). Clay stamps that must have 
served for the application of color- 
ing matter to the skin have been 
found in Neolithic caves of Liguria 
and in a ston€ cist "on peta. 
shire. 

In addition to painting and tat- 
tooing the body, Neolithic races, like 
their predecessors, were fond of 
Fic. 292. EARLY NEOLITHIL CLAY ornament attached to the person or 

VESSELS OF THE BANDED Tyr” the: clothing? SO tiguinee atm 

FROM BOHEMIA. 

The Upper DREde CEAeSMe Rodin race imperishable articles, but 
stylistic human figure. Originals in the jt is reasonable to suppose that ma- 
National Museum at Prague. Pho- E 3 
tograph by J. Schranil. terials of a perishable nature were 

also employed. 

Beads used either as necklaces or as a decoration for clothing 
are the most abundant. They occur in a bewildering variety of size, 
shape, and substance. Discoidal or globular forms predominate; 
cylindrical, biconical, and aberrant forms are also met with. The 





THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD 95 


materials employed are for the most part easy to work—amber, 
steatite, gypsum, slate, lignite, limestone, jet, etc. Beads made of 
hard substances such as amethyst, quartz, serpentine and flint are 
rare. Shell beads were 
o ften employed, es- 
pecially on wearing 
apparel. Land and sea 
shells, both living and 
fossil, were utilized 
promiscuously. Bone 
beads were not un- 
common. Schenk re- 
ports the presence of 
eoralepeads in the 
Neolithic — sepultures 
of Chamblandes near 
Lausanne. Even tor- 
toise shell seems to 
have been sought 
mater in ‘Neolithic 
times, judging from 
the evidence afforded 
by the finds at the 
Camp de Chassey, in 
certain French tumuli 
and caves, and in the 
pile dwellings at Lai- , 
Pacu (Carniola). 
Whether beads of 
glass were known to 
the Neolithic races of r : 

é ; IG. 293. LATE NEOLITHIC CLAY VESSELS WITH PUNC- 
Europe is still an open TATE DECORATION FROM BOHEMIA. 


question. The few The banded pottery of early Neolithic times in Bohemia 
. : (Fig. 292), gradually developed into the type with punctate 
cases cited as bearing decoration shown above. Originals in the National 


on the subject are not Museum at Prague. Photograph by J. Schranil. 








convincing. 
The pendant, used either singly or in Series, continued to be a 
favorite ornament. Both organic and inorganic substances were 


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Fic. 294. EXAMPLES OF NEOLITHIC WEAVING, FROM ROBENHAUSEN AND WANGEN, 
SWITZERLAND. 


The material in all is flax. Nos. 1-5 give examples of four kinds of platted cloth 
remarkable for their structure and accuracy of workmanship; Nos. 6—8 were made, not by 
hand, but by some weaving apparatus. 


THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD 97 


employed in its manufacture—teeth, bone, horn, shell, and stone. 
Frequently met with are the perforated canines of the wild boar, 
dog, fox, wolf, badger, and horse; also the incisors of the ox and 
beaver. Human teeth were sometimes employed in like manner. 
Another method of utilizing teeth as ornaments was to make a pen- 
dant of the entire mandible by A 
means of perforations through if ic TTT ha 
the ascending branches. Examples , e 

of this sort are known to the Neo- 
lithic Period not only of Europe 
but also of North America. 

It is a curious fact that both 
Paleolithic and Neolithic man \ i) 
made imitation teeth and shells. A t ) / Hd /) Lt, pa LTA f 
fine Paleolithic example is the Mi iii 
pendant ivory in the form of a 
Cypraea shell, found by Daleau at 
Pair-non-Pair (Gironde). Neo- 
lithic imitations of teeth made of 
bone and stone have been found 
both in France and in Ohio. 

Among Neolithic bone amu- 
lets should be mentioned the per- 
forated disks cut from the human F!6. 295. RECONSTRUCTION OF A NEO- 
cranium, as well as those taken Sikes a 

On a simple loom of this type M. Paur 
from other parts of the skeleton, found it possible to make a great variety of 
both human and animal. Many excellent designs with ease. After Keller. 
of the Neolithic ornaments are presumably votive. To this class 
evidently belong the numerous small polished stone axes perforated 
for suspension. 

Bracelets had a place in Neolithic personal adornment. These 
were made for the most part of stone or shell. The special work- 
shop for turning out bracelets discovered by Pérot at Montcom- 
broux (Allier) probably dates from the Neolithic Period. He 
found here more than three thousand fragments of partly finished 
bracelets made of schist, together with the necessary tools for their 
manufacture. The Neolithic flint bracelets found at Abydos in 
Egypt are veritable works of art. 





98 HUMAN ORIGINS 


Ornaments made of amber, a species of turquoise (callais), 
and jadeite belong in a class apart, since they serve to throw im- 
portant sidelights on Neolithic trade relations. 

Fossil resin, known as amber, is found principally on the penin- 
sula of Samland, eastern Prussia, farther west on both sides of 
the Baltic littoral, and on parts of the North Sea littoral. The 
greater part of the amber supply is washed up by the waves. In- 
land it is confined to deposits of lignite. Amber was rare during 
the Neolithic Period save in Sweden, Denmark, northern Germany, 
and Great Britain—countries nearest the source of supply. During 
the Bronze Age it spread 
rapidly over Europe. In 
Neolithic Scandinavia 
amber was worked into 
beads, pendants, and 
votive axes (Fig. 296). 

A species of altered 
turquoise known in 
France as callais was 
much prized for its 
color. .The original 
sources of supply have 
not yet been discovered. 
The hypothesis that it came from the Orient is not established, 
although its geographic distribution is not inconsistent with such a 
view, since objects made of it are found principally in regions 
bordering on the Mediterranean and the Atlantic. 

The Neolithic tumulus of Tumiac (Morbihan) has yielded 
numerous beads and pendants made of callus. Other megalithic 
monuments of Morbihan have furnished their quota. Two other 
important centers are Portugal and southern France. It is interest- 
ing to note that beads of callais disappeared in the Age of Metals 
as soon as the art of making glass beads of about the same color 
was learned. 

Nephrite and jadeite were highly prized by Neolithic man in 
part as articles of adornment and also in the manufacture of tools 
de luxe. Splendid examples, especially of polished axes, have been 
found in the megalithic monuments of Brittany, in the lake dwell- 





































































































Fic. 296. PENDANT OF AMBER IN THE FORM OF 
AN AX, FROM BOHUSLAN, SWEDEN. 


Scale, 2. After Montelius. 


THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD 99 


ings of Switzerland, and elsewhere. The original sources of supply 
of nephrite and jadeite, like those of callais, remain in obscurity. 

The use of obsidian or volcanic glass does not seem to have 
played so important a role in the manufacture of ornaments or 
tools in Europe as it did in the New World. The chief sources of 
supply seem to have been the Greek archipelago and southern 
Italy. 


SCULPTURE 


The Paleolithic sculptor was concerned almost wholly with the 
realistic representation of his model. The matter of elimination or 
abbreviation of parts, 
or of their exaggera- 
tion, was of minor im- 
portance and seldom 
indulged in. The hu- 
man female figure was 
one of the few excep- 
tions, and even here the t 
artist never reached the Pen tle: tae 





level of pure conven- fy, 297. NEOLITHIC SCULPTURED RELIEFS REPRE- 
tionalism. The cave SENTING THE HUMAN FEMALE. 


: These stylistic reliefs were found on the walls of ante- 
artist developed type chambers of artificial Neolithic sepulchral caves in the 
represented b y the valley of the Petit-Morin (see also Fig. 299). Color may 


: . have been used to complete the figure suggested by tke 
Venus of Willendorf » carving. After de Baye. 


the Neolithic sculptor 
produced a type embodied in the statue menhir. The difference 
between the two is not so much one of skill as one of viewpoint. 
Each in its way was redolent of the age that gave it birth and full 
of cultural significance. 

Neolithic sculptured figures of the human female are found in 
certain sections of France, notably in the valleys of the Marne, 
Seine, and Oise, and in the departments of Gard, Aveyron, Hérault, 
and Tarn. ‘There is a distinct family likeness running through the 
entire list, suggesting for all a common origin and meaning. 

More than a hundred artificial: Neolithic caves have been ex- 
plored in the valley of the Petit-Morin (Marne); seven of these 
contain sculptured figures either of the human female or of the 


100 HUMAN ORIGINS 


ax. Each artificial cave consists of two parts, a sepulchral cham- 
ber and an antechamber. The female figures are sculptured on one 
of the walls of the antechamber and are obviously to be considered 
as representing guardians of the dead (Figs. 297 and 298). 
It takes a lively imagination to complete the picture begun by 
the artist, who was content to sketch a few features only—the 
brow ridges, nose, a pair of 
breasts, a necklace, sometimes a 
mouth or a pair of eyes in addi- 
tion. The work of the sculptor’s 
chisel seems to have been sup- 
plemented by the use of color. 
At Coizard the large bead in the 
necklace still bore traces of a 
yellow color as if to suggest gold 
or amber; the eyes of the same 
figure are “in” blacks emotes 
representations are to be found 
on the supports of certain pas- 
sage graves of the Seine and 
Oise valleys, for “ex a mhaie 
Aveny (Eure) and Dampont 
Fic. 298. NEOLITHIC HAFTED AX EN- ane (Sea ee 
GRAVED ON THE WALL oF AN artiri- same Neolithic female divinity 
CLAD BURA Oey eg ras recurs in several dolmenic sepul- 
MARNE, FRANCE. 
Since the ax was found on the wall of the tures of Gard, notably at Col- 
antechamber to a sepulture, it probably was lorgues, where two examples 


meant as a protection to the dead. The 
blade of the ax is painted black. Scale, + were found. In both of these the 


After de Baye. ” idol was provided with diminu- 
tive arms but not with legs. 

The region comprising Aveyron, Tarn, and Herault is the home 
of the so-called statue menhir. More than a score of these sculp- 
tures have been reported. ‘They differ from all the figures pre- 
viously mentioned in being not simple bas-reliefs but veritable 
figures in the round, also in being complete and not confined simply 
to features of the bust. Some are provided with a belt, below 
which dangle two diminutive legs (Fig. 299). 

Megalithic sculpture flourished in Brittany, examples being 











THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD 101 


found in some twenty monuments of Morbihan alone. The most 
remarkable series is from the passage grave of Gavr’inis, where 
twenty-two of the twenty-nine supports are completely covered by 
sculptured patterns. The principal motive has been aptly compared 
with palm and finger prints (Fig. 300). 





FIG. 299. FRONT AND REAR VIEWS OF A NEOLITHIC STATUE MENHIR, REPRESENTING 
A HUMAN FEMALE, FROM SAINT-SERNIN, AVEYRON, FRANCE. 


The arms and legs are visible in the front view; at the back they are hidden beneath 
a sort of one-piece garment held in place by means of a belt (see also Fig. 297). After 
de Mortillet. 


Representations of the ax occur not only at Gavr’inis but also 
in the dolmen known as the Table des Marchands, likewise in the 
dolmen of Mané-er-Hroeck. These Breton axes are hafted in a 
different way from those cut on the walls of the artificial caves of 
the Petit-Morin (Fig. 301). At the Table des Marchands there 
are groups of figures representing the ax handle alone. Another 
important motive employed by the megalithic sculptor has been 
referred to as scutiform. ‘This shield-shaped motive is dominant 


102 HUMAN ORIGINS 


at Pierres-Plates. If the ax is to be glorified as a weapon of 
offense, why not also the shield as a means of defense (Figs. 302 
and 303). 

The spiral as a motive in megalithic sculpture is well represented 
in the British Isles, among the best examples being those from 
Lough Crew and New Grange in Ireland. These monuments date 





Fic. 300. INTERIOR OF THE PASSAGE GRAVE OF GAVR’INIS, BRITTANY. 


The walls are entirely covered with sculptured patterns resembling finger prints. 


from the very close of the Neolithic Period or the beginning of 
the Bronze Age. ) 

The Iberian peninsula also has its statue menhirs. Fine ex- 
amples have been reported from Crato, La Esperanga, and Ponte 
de Sor, in Portugal. They have their counterpart in certain picto- 
graphs of Spain, notably at Pefa Tu (Asturias), where painting 
is combined with engraving to produce the desired effect. Rep- 
resentations of idols in human form, both painted and engraved, 
have been found in certain Spanish dolmens at Corao near Abamia 
(Asturias) and at Cangas de Onis. 


THE. NEOLITHIC PERIOD 103 


TP URTAL ITE 


The burial rite existed prior to the Neolithic Period, but pre- 
Neolithic burials were extremely simple, usually nothing more than 


an excavation in the earth in 
which the corpse was deposited. 
The limbs were sometimes flexed, 
a custom which persisted and was 
still further developed during the 
Neolithic Period. Rarely a stone 
or stones were placed about or 
over the remains, which were 
never incinerated intentionally. 
During the Neolithic and 
later periods the burial rite gained 
in importance and _ underwent 
many modifications, both inhuma- 





Fic. 301. HAFTED AX CARVED ON A 
STONE FROM THE PASSAGE GRAVE OF 
GAVR’INIS, BRITTANY. 


The hafting of this ax is of a type 
peculiar to Brittany. Compare with 
Figure 298. Scale, %. After de Mor- 
tillet. 


tion and incineration being practiced. The graves were individual as 









( 
(G 


Fic. 302. SHIELD CARVED ON ONE OF THE 
SUPPORTING STONES OF THE DOLMEN 
KNOWN AS THE TABLE DES MARCHANDS. 


The crozier-shaped figures at both Gavr’inis 
and the Table des Marchands (see Fig. 314) 
resemble representations of the ax handle. 
Scale, #5. After de Mortillet. 


well as communal, and con- 
sisted not only of simple inter- 
ments in any suitable site, but 
also of burials under erratic 
boulders and in natural and 
artificial caves. Another inter- 
esting practice was the con- 
struction of stone chambers, 
great and small as well as com- 
plex and simple, usually re- 
ferred to as dolmens, to which 
we have already referred and 
will revert later in this chapter. 

Burial in Artificial Caves.— 
Closely related to the dolmens 
are the artificial burial caves, 
which, in part, reproduce the 
dolmenic plan and detail of 
ornamentation. The artificial 


burial caves may be studied to best advantage in the department of 


104 HUMAN ORIGINS 


the Marne, especially in the valley of the Petit-Morin, where they 
have been known since 1816, especially through explorations begun 
in 1872 by Baron de Baye. These caves are dug in a deposit of chalk. 
A trench leads to the cave entrance, which was closed by a stone slab. 
Some of the caves are simple; others are double, consisting of the 
chamber proper and an antechamber of smaller dimensions. The 
smallest cave measures 1.9 by 2.0 meters (6.2 by 6.6 feet); the 
largest 3.9 by 3.6 meters (12.8 by 11.8 feet). The height varies 
from 1.1 to 1.7 meters (3.6 to 5.6 feet). The Grotteides Meceua. 





PI In IIE 


— oe ge we a ww Se 


Fic. 303. SHIELDS CARVED ON THE SUPPORTS OF THE DOLMEN OF PIERRES-PLATES 
AT LOCMARIAQUER, MORBIHAN. 


It is probable that the Neolithic sculptor believed that these shields would protect 
the sepultures which they adorned. Scale, so. After de Mortillet. 


Fontvieille in Provence represents a dolmenic form intermediate 
between the passage graves and the artificial caves. 

In several of these artificial caves, figures cut in low relief have 
been found, some representing a female divinity, others a hafted 
ax, both classes having religious significance and suggestive of a 
Mediterranean origin. Each cave contained several skeletons, 
nearly always complete; for the Marne they number all told about 
two thousand. The corpses were deposited full length, the arms 
generally parallel with the body. Since some of the largest caves 
harbored the fewest skeletons, Cartailhac believes them to have 
been funerary chapels either destined for certain ceremonial rituals 
or reserved for the sepulture of persons of high rank, perhaps 
military or sacerdotal. 


THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD 105 


The sepulchral accompaniments comprised especially axes of 
flint and jadeite, some still retaining their sockets of staghorn, 
knives, scrapers, arrowheads (those with transverse edges very 
abundant), bone objects, and ornaments, including amber and tur- 
quoise beads. Among the crania are several examples of trepana- 
tion and cranial rondelles or disks. None of the caves of the Petit- 
Morin valley has furnished any object of metal. The Baron de 
‘Baye’s collections from this district are now the property of the 
National Museum of Antiquities at Saint-Germain-en-Laye. This 
mode of sepulture, so characteristic of the Marne, is rare elsewhere 
in France. It is not to be confounded with widely distributed sub- 
terranean refuges belonging to more recent epochs. 

Burial 1n Natural Caves——Many natural caves of western 
Europe, especially in France and Belgium, were utilized as com- 
munal burial places by Neolithic peoples. In many of these the 
Neolithic burials are superposed on deposits of Paleolithic age. A 
short list of the more important examples of Neolithic sepulture in 
natural caves in France is added for the benefit of the student: 


EXAMPLES OF NEOLITHIC SEPULTURE IN NATURAL CAVES IN FRANCE 


Ariége.—Les Eglises; Herm; Montgrenier, valley of the Ariege 

Droéme.—Cave of Chateauneuf-du-Rhone; cave of Clausail. 

Gard.—La Baume des Morts at Durfort; Grotte des Morts near 
Durfort; Saint-Jean-d’Alcas (late Neolithic). 

Haute-Garonne.—Aurignac; Penna-Blanque; Grottes de Saint- 
Mamet near Bagnéres-de-Luchon. 

Haute-Saodne.—Grotte de Cravanche, 3 kilometers northwest of 
Belfort. 

FHérault.—Grotte d’Aven Laurier. 

Landes.—Duruthy cave at Sordes. 

Lorraine.—Trous des Celtes, Moselle valley; Grotte des Geants, 
below the Maron valley. 

Lot.—Combe-Cullier. 

Lozére.—Grottes de Baumes-Chaudes near Saint-Georges-de-Leve- 
jac (in the two principal caves Pruniéres found an enormous quantity 
of human bones belonging to a dolichocephalic early Neolithic race) ; 
l’Homme-Mort, at Saint-Pierre-des-Tripieds (at least fifty skeletons 
of early Neolithic age). 


106 HUMAN ORIGINS 


As early as 1885 G. de Mortillet had already noted 117 natural 
caves, distributed over thirty-six departments, in which Neolithic 
races buried their dead. Dupont and others have made similar dis- 
coveries in Belgium, in the caves of Gendron, Chavaux, Schlaig- 
neaux, etc. 

Burial under Erratic Boulders.—In certain parts of France, 
burials under erratic boulders have been noted. 





Fic. 304. SEPULTURE UNDER AN ERRATIC BOULDER NEAR BORDES, ARIEGE, FRANCE. 


Under this rock Regnault found at different levels two burials of widely separated 
epochs. After Regnault. 


Near Bordes, at the intersection of the Riberol and Biros val- 
leys in Ariége, is a great morainic deposit on which rests an erratic 
granite boulder 3.5 meters (11.5 feet) high by 4.2 meters (13.79 
feet) in breadth. Under this Regnault found human burials in two 
horizons. In the lower horizon there was priniitive crude pottery, 
also pottery with geometric designs. The upper horizon probably 
belongs to the Bronze Age (Fig. 304). 

As early as 1842, at Crécy (Seine-et-Marne) Caro dug under 
an erratic block 5 meters (16.4 feet) by 3 meters (9.85 feet) in 
size, laying bare the remains of about fifty persons in three super- 


THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD 107 


posed layers. With the bones were polished flint axes, one still in 
its staghorn handle, serpentine amulets, a bone point, and divers 
chipped flints. No mention was made of pottery, though sherds 
were probably found there also. 

In 1863, at the gates of Meaux (Seine-et-Marne), Caro found 
a second sepulture, at a place called La Justice, which furnished 
identical conditions. 
Under a block 5.5 meters 
moo eieect) by 4.2 
feeeenms (13:79 feet), 
larger than that at 
Crecy, excavation re- 
vealed the fact that a 
series of flagstones sur- 
Pounded the great 
boulder, under which 
was a skeleton and frag- 
ments of pottery, also 
several beads.  Erfatic 
boulders serving the 
same purpose have been 
encountered at Meulan, 
Saint-Maur-des- 
Fosses, and other locali- 


ties. Similar burial cus- 
toms were common _ . FIG. 305. NEOLITHIC BURIAL AS DISCOVERED IN A 
CEMETERY NEAR WORMS, GERMANY. 





oO 1 as 
note the pene Incas Note the partially flexed arms and legs and the 
of the Peruvian high- clay vessel back of the head. Photograph by the 


es author. 

Stone-Cist Burials.—In their simplest form stone cists are com- 
posed of five flat stones, four of which are set on edge enclosing a 
rectangular space; the fifth serves as a cover. Cists, then, are the 
prototype of our modern coffin. They are encountered for the most 
part as simple interments without distinguishing surface mark. 
Sometimes they are found under dolmen tumuli surrounding a 
central sepulture. The stone cist is found in various departments 
of France, especially in Morbihan, Finistere, Charente, Vienne, 
and Lozére. 


108 HUMAN ORIGINS 


Fine examples of stone-cist burials are seen in the Neolithic 
necropolis at Chamblandes, near Lausanne, Switzerland. It is com- 
posed of small groups of from five to seven stone-cist tombs, each 
tomb with an east-west orientation. A cist measures a meter in 
length by a half meter in breadth and depth. In nearly every 
instance it contains two skeletons, a male and a female, the male 
being generally the first 
to have been interred. 
In exceptional cases a 
cist contained as many 
as five skeletons. The 
extremities were always 
flexed. DPhieeaw 
blandes necropolis dates 
from near the close of 
the Neolithic Period. 

The) rep Gmeeos 
Worms (Rhenish 
Hesse) is noted for the 
number and richness of 
the Neolithic burials. 
The principal cemeteries 
are at Hinkelstein, near 
Monsheim; Rheindurk- 
heim; Alzey; and within 
the city: line 


Fic. 306. NeotirHic HaBiTaTion site AT Worms, on the Rheinge- 
MOLSHEIM, NEAR WORMS, GERMANY. wann. These all belong 


The man is pointing to the relic-bearing deposit. 
Photograph by the author. 





to the same phase of the 
Neolithic Period. The 
burials were in pits without any permanent protection. The bodies 
were placed on the side, with extremities flexed, or on the back. 
With the dead there were placed pottery vessels (Fig. 305), ocher, 
stone hand mills (especially in female sepultures ), and other objects. 
Habitation sites have also been uncovered near Worms, at Moélsheim 
(Fig. 306). Mid-Neolithic cist burials on Green Island (La 
Motte), Jersey, have been described by R. R. Marett (Fig. 307). 


THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD 109 


MEGALITHIC MONUMENTS 


In contradistinction to Paleolithic man, Neolithic man was a 
builder. He was no longer content with such shelter as Nature 
afforded, either for himself while living or for his relatives after 
death. Some of his work in building was temporary; some, espe- 
cially that which was destined as a place of sepulture, was per- 
manent. He dug caves in the solid rock, but above all he erected 





Fic. 307. END VIEW OF A MID-NEOLITHIC CIST BURIAL ON LA MOTTE, JERSEY. 
Photograph by Marett. 


monumental structures of stone which remain to this day the won- 
der and admiration of those familiar with the architectural prob- 
lems involved. 

The most imposing Neolithic architectural remains are those 
associated with the cult of the dead, usually referred to as mega- 
lithic monuments. Megalith means large stone; the term was offi- 
cially adopted at the International Congress of Prehistoric An- 
thropology and Archeology in 1867 as the proper designation for 
monuments built of such stones. The term had already been 
employed in Morbihan, a region especially rich in megalithic monu- 
ments. 


"HONVUA ‘NVHIGUON ‘OVNAVO UVAN OANAW JO INAWANITV AHL ‘SOL “OWT 


Se ee 





THE NEOLITHIC. PERIOD 111 


Under this title are grouped structures of various types known 
in Brittany as dolmens, menhirs, cromlechs, and alinements. Dol- 
men is a Breton word meaning table (dol) of stone (men). The 
root men is also seen in menhir, meaning a long stone. A menhir 
is a single long stone set on end. The dolmenic structure involves 
the use of several stones—at least one horizontal stone (the table) 
supported by other flat stones set vertically. The menhir and dol- 













Yip 
Ms 








FIG. 300.. POSSIBLE METHODS OF LIFTING AND MOVING HUGE MONOLITHS IN PRE- 
HISTORIC TIMES. 


After Choisy. 


men are the fundamental forms from which others are derived. A 
series of menhirs arranged in a circle, oval, or rectangle is called a 
cromlech. Menhirs placed in a series of more or less parallel 
rows constitute alinements. Dolmens are funeral chambers. They 
vary much in size and shape. Some consist of but a single chamber, 
others are multi-chambered. 

In dealing with the Neolithic Period in Scandinavia, earlier in 
this chapter, it was thought best to give the dolmenic monuments 


112 HUMAN ORIGINS 


more than passing notice because of their intimate relation to the 
Neolithic chronology of that region. There remain for considera- 
tion a comparative study of the dolmen and the presentation of 
other megalithic monuments from various parts of Europe. 
Although it would be impossible to say how many of the mega- 
lithic monuments of western Europe have been destroyed, we may 
assume that the distribution of those which exist is a fairly good 





Fic. 310. THE FALLEN GIANT MENHIR AT LOCMARIAQUER, MORBIHAN, FRANCE. 


This is one of the four great pieces that remain of the great monolith known locally as 
Men-er-Hroeck. Total length of the monolith; 20.5 meters (67.3 feet). Photograph by 
Mrs. David Fairchild. ‘ 


index of that for any prior date. Their preservation in such large 
numbers is perhaps due in part to the web of myth, legend, and 
superstition which has surrounded them in all countries since the 
earliest historic times. 

The cult of these stone monuments is reflected in the names still 
attaching to them. The most popular legendary name for a dolmen 
connects it with an abode for fairies—maison des fées, tombe des 
fées, cave aux fées, etc. There is even a greater variety of desig- 


THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD 113 


nations for menhirs—dent, tombeau, affiloir, de Gargantua, grave 
de Roland, pierre au diable, pierrefitte, haute borne, pierre fiche, 
pierre aux sorciers, etc. 

The cult of megaliths is also reflected in the legend of Saint 
Cornély, patron saint of domestic animals (especially cattle), to 
whom the church at Carnac is dedicated. There is a legend that he 
fled from Rome pursued by pagan soldiers. In his flight two oxen 
carried his luggage. Arriving at the site of the present village of 
Carnac, with the sea before him and the soldiers still in pursuit, 
he miraculously transformed his pursuers into stones, which remain 




















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\ te iatan 
aa ZONE PTET EEN TET EEE ATES, SASS rarer ws 
————: ea a Se SS ee = 
= = WECM IK Wit SA © SUN ER W TN WS TN Ty 





WW 
ANSE Ws 






= —— SS RAN 























Fic. 311. SECTION AND GROUND PLAN OF THE PASSAGE GRAVE OF GAVR’INIS, 
MORBIHAN. 


The ground plan shows how much longer the entrance passage is than the burial 
chamber, which is covered by the single large stone at the left. Total length of passage 
and grave, 12.5 meters (41 feet). See also Figures 300 and 301. After Déchelette. 


to this day in the celebrated alinements of the immediate neighbor- 
hood (Fig. 308). The church marks the spot where Saint Cornély 
stood. In gratitude for the service rendered him in his flight by the 
oxen, he has ever since served as patron of their kind. 

Something analogous to the annual autumn ceremony at Car- 
nac may be seen at a little church not far from Brussels, dedicated 
to Saint Guidon, who for that region is special patron of horses, 
cattle, and agriculture, particularly of horses. On Monday after 
Easter or Monday after Pentecost there is a procession of horses 
around the church. Little medals bearing the image of Saint 
Guidon are hung about the horses’ necks, and their heads are 
decorated with paper banners also bearing pictures of the saint. 


114 HUMAN ORIGINS 


How prehistoric man solved the engineering problems con- 
nected with the transportation and erection of megalithic monu- 
ments is.not definitely known. Some of the stones employed are 
of enormous size. <A block weighing 40,000 kilograms (44 short 
tons) forming part of a dolmen at La Perotte (Charente) is 
thought to have been transported some 30 kilometers (18.8 miles). 
There are conceivable primitive ways by which transportation for 
relatively short distances might have been accomplished, one of 
these being illustrated by Choisy (Fig. 309). To place on end a 
great menhir involves another set of problems. The giant menhir 
at Locmariaquer in Morbihan, known locally as Men-er-Hroeck 
(pierre de la fée), now fallen and broken, has a total length of 20.5 
meters (67.3 feet) and an estimated weight of over 300,000 kilo- 
grams (330 short tons). This enormous monolith was not only 
transported a kilometer (54 mile), but was also lifted to a vertical 
position. Four of the five pieces of this menhir lie where it fell at 
some unknown date (Fig. 310). 

Dolmens.—Nearly five thousand dolmens still exist in France. 
Of these some 205 have already been set aside as national monu- 
ments. A study of the geographic distribution of the dolmens in 
France reveals the fact that they abound in some regions and are 
rare or lacking in others. At least five of the departments have 
none; seven have only one each; while the department of Aveyron 
has a total of 487. There are two great dolmenic areas in France: 
(1) the southern, comprising the departments of Aveyron, Ardeche, 
Gard, Lot, and Lozére; and (2) Brittany, especially Morbihan and 
Finistere. 

Among French dolmens the so-called allée couverte (passage 
grave) occupies an important place. The name is well chosen since 
the entrance or antechamber is often several times as long as the 
chamber to which it leads. A notable example of the passage grave 
is that of Gavr’inis (Goat Island) in Morbihan. The dolmen is 
12.5 meters (41 feet) long by 1.4 meters (4.6 feet) wide, and ends 
in a chamber nearly square, the height of which is 1.8 meters (5.9 
feet). A single great flagstone 4 meters by 3 meters (13.1 by 9.8 
feet) covers the chamber (Fig. 311). All the stones, covering as 
well as supporting, are of granite except two which are of quartz. 
The walls and ceiling of the dolmen are covered with a strange 


THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD | is 


series of engravings. According to Eugene Stockis, these decora- 
tive motives find their replica in palm and fingerprints. With the 
exception of the ax symbol, they are enlarged reproductions of 
cutaneous patterns of the human hand. ‘The passage grave is cov- 
ered by a tumulus having a mean diameter of some 55 to 60 meters 





Fic. 312. ENGRAVED STONES FROM THE DOLMEN NEAR GOHLITSCH, SAXONY. 
Photograph from the 


On each stone there is carved the representation of an ax. 
Landesanstalt Museum ftir Vorgeschichte, Halle. 


(180.6 to 197 feet). The monument within was discovered in 
1832. It had been entered at some unknown prior date, how- 
ever, and robbed of all portable archeologic contents. The: dolmen 
of Gavr'’inis is comparable in some respects with the dolmen under a 
tumulus near Gohlitsch, district of Merseburg (Saxony), which 
dates from the middle of the Neolithic Period; two of the engraved 
stones from Gohlitsch, are reproduced in Figure 312. 


‘FONVUA ‘NVHISUOW ‘AANOVIAVAIOT LV GAT-YNVW 4O NAWIOd AH] ‘“f1l ‘Oly 








Bol eNEOLITHIC PERIOD Lif 


Another dolmen of the passage-grave type is that of Mané-Lud 
at Locmariaquer. The tumulus of Mané-Lud, some 80 meters 
(262.7 feet) long and 5.5 meters (18.1 feet) high, covers at its 
western end a passage grave and at the opposite end a sort of crom- 
lech or circle of small menhirs hidden beneath the tumulus. Each 
menhir supported the skull of a horse. At the center of the crom- 
lech, a cairn (galgal) or mass of stones covered a sepulchral cist 
containing human bones and stone implements (Fig. 313). 





Fic. 314. DOLMEN KNOWN AS THE “TABLE DES MARCHANDS”’ AT LOCMARIAQUER, 
MORBIHAN. 


Neolithic carving on inner surface of one of the supports is illustrated in Figure 302. 


The passage grave of Pierres-Plates at Locmariaquer has a 
length of 28 meters (91.9 feet) and was originally composed of 
forty-eight supporting, and twenty covering, or table, stones. The 
ground plan of this great dolmen resembles a tailless bird in flight, 
the wings representing two corridors and the head and neck the 
chamber. ‘The first mention of the monument dates from 1813. 
From 1814 to 1816 it was badly injured by unscrupulous diggers 
for treasure. Pottery, stone implements, and human bones were 
found in the dolmen, but the chief interest attaches to the remark- 
able sculptured figures on the inner surface of several of the sup- 
porting stones. The figures, cut in the rock, belong to a class that 


118 HUMAN ORIGINS 


has been called scutiform (see Fig. 303). No other dolmen has 
furnished these designs in such variety. 

One of the best known dolmens of Brittany is the Table des 
Marchands at Locmariaquer, explored as early as 1811 (Fig. 314). 
The inner surface of one of the supports of the table is covered with 
incised designs in shape not unlike the boomerang. The tumulus 
that once covered this dolmen has completely disappeared. Another 





FIG, 315, THE DOLMEN OF KERVERESSE AT CARNAC, MORBIHAN, 


notable dolmen in Morbihan near Carnac is known as Kerveresse 
CBigme rs). 

The largest dolmenic tumulus in Brittany is in Morbihan—that 
known as Mont Saint-Michel. The length is 115 meters (377.6 
feet) and the breadth 58 meters (190.4 feet). On its summit is a 
chapel where once stood a Roman temple. The exploration of the 
central dolmenic crypt, begun in 1862, resulted in the finding of 
numerous polished stone implements, beads, pendants, etc., one of 
the finest specimens being a jade ax 40 centimeters (15.7 inches) 
long. Recent excavations in the outer limits of the tumulus have 
brought to light a long series of small cells. 

Two other tumuli dispute first place in point of size with Mont 


THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD 119 


Saint-Michel. Maneé-er-Hroeck at Locmariaquer is an oval monti- 
cule 100 meters (328.3 feet) long by 60 meters (196.8 feet) wide 
eruemisine to a height of 10 meters (32.8 feet). The central 
funerary chamber, found to be intact in 1863, contained a splendid 
ax of jadeite resting on a jadeite ring. Other objects found included 
a cache of 101 axes of jadeite and fibrolite, also potsherds, charcoal, 
flint, and three other stone axes. The specimens may be seen in the 
museum at Vannes. One of the supporting stones of the dolmen 
near the entrance bears a pattern of sinuous incised lines. The 
other great tumulus, known as Tumiac, is in the commune of Arzon 
(Morbihan). 

One of the most imposing dolmens of western France is that of 
Bagneux at Saumur (Maine-et-Loir). The ground plan is quadri- 
lateral; the dimensions are: length 20 meters (65.7 feet) ; breadth 
about 7 meters (23 feet) ; and height 3 meters (9.8 feet) to the top 
of the three table stones. The fourteen flagstones comprising this 
monument are in fact megaliths, the largest one measuring 7.5 
meters (24.6 feet) long by 7 meters (23 feet) in width. This colos- 
sal dolmenic chamber is said once to have had a corridor built of 
smaller flagstones and may hence be classed as a passage grave. It 
was presumably emptied of its contents at an early date, as the 
explorations of 1775 were without positive results. 

The Bronze Age dolmens of Brittany are distinguished from 
those of the Neolithic Period by the difference in method of con- 
struction. They are no longer composed wholly of megaliths; the 
walls consist of dry masonry, stone on stone, while the covering 
may be either flagstones, as in the Neolithic Period, or a false 
vaulting built of smaller units. 

There are many dolmens in the valleys of the Seine and Oise. 
The characteristic type is a subterranean gallery consisting of an 
antechamber separated from a long chamber by an upright flag- 
stone. This partition is sometimes perforated (Fig. 266) as at 
Trie-Chateau (Oise) and Dampont and La Justice (Seine-et-Oise). 
The perforated partition recurs in about one-third of the dolmens 
of the two departments mentioned. Similar perforations connect- 
ing the chamber with the antechamber are reported from various 
countries, including England, Belgium, Sweden, Germany, Thrace, 
Caucasus, Syria, Palestine, and India. 


120 HUMAN ORIGINS 


A monument of unusual type for France is the great tumulus of 
La Hogue at Fonteney-le-Marmion (Calvados), explored in 1830. 
The tumulus, composed of calcareous stones, has a diameter of 
42 meters (137.9 feet) and covers about a dozen dolmens, each with 
its corridor. The walls of both chamber and corridor are built of 
dry masonry, stone on stone. The corridors were covered by 
flagstones in the usual manner, while the chambers were provided 
with a false vaulting composed of many units. Stone implements, 
potsherds, and human skeletal remains were found in the various 
chambers. 

Dolmens are especially numerous in southern France but these 
are not so imposing as are those of Brittany. The chamber is 
generally rectangular and bounded by four stones, two large and 
two small, one of the latter serving as doorway. The flagstone 
covering the chamber is frequently quite large. The contents of 
these dolmens do not date wholly from the Neolithic Period; they 
represent rather an early phase of the Bronze Age usually referred 
to as the Age of Copper or Eneolithic. 

In Provence there are four passage graves that may well be 
considered as intermediate between the dolmen and the artificial 
cave. These, located in the commune of Fontvieille, are known 
as the Grottes des Fées, de Bounias, de la Source, and du Castellet. 

The Grotte des Fees is the largest, with alent gms 
meters (79.6 feet) and a breadth averaging some 3 meters (9.8 
feet). It is dug in the limestone and is reached by descending ten 
steps cut in the rock. Two lateral chambers near the base of the 
stairway complete the cruciform plan. The main chamber, or nave, 
is covered by a series of flagstones, dolmen fashion, once hidden 
by a layer of stone rubbish. The chamber was emptied at some 
unknown date and is known to have been in its present condition 
since 1779. 

The other three artificial caves do not seem to have possessed 
the lateral chambers. The Grotte du Castellet, explored in 1876, 
yielded several dozen flint arrowheads, one of which was found 
lodged in a human vertebra, polished stone axes, bone points, 
beads, pendants, 114 rondelles made of a species of turquoise 
(callais), a gold bead, and pottery, including a caliciform goblet. 
Caliciform vases of Brittany belong to the Neolithic Period, 


THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD 121 


whereas in southern France they represent the first epoch of the 
Bronze Age proper. 

On the arid plateau of Ger are many tumuli belonging to two 
entirely different epochs, all alike, however, as to outward aspect. 
A relatively smaller number contain dolmens of the passage-grave 
type in which are found late Neolithic inhumations and industrial 
remains. The others belong to the Iron Age (Hallstatt Epoch), 
as indicated by the objects of bronze and iron and the cinerary 
urns and burnt human bones found therein. 

Even a hasty survey of the megalithic monuments of southern 
France would be incomplete without some mention of the dolmen 
known locally as the Payre de la Fade (Pierre de la Fée), situated 
I kilometer (5g mile) northwest of Draguignan (Var). The bare 
covering, or table, stone is 6 meters (19.7 feet) in length. 

One should not lose sight of the fact that when the walls of a 
dolmen are built of large, crude stones set on end, there will remain 
large chinks between adjoining stones. In dolmens still intact these 
chinks are invariably filled in with small stones. Fillings of this 
sort have disappeared from dolmens that have lost their tumuli. 

Geographic Distribution of Dolmens.—Dolmens. are common 
to Asia, Africa, and Europe. They are found as far east as India, 
in Syria, Crimea, the Caucasus, and Bulgaria; Sweden, Norway, 
Denmark, northern Germany, Holland, Belgium, the British Isles, 
France, Spain, and Portugal; Algeria, Tunis, Tripoli, Morocco, 
Egypt, and the Soudan. They are wanting in Hungary, Bohemia, 
and southern Germany, also in Greece. The only dolmens reported 
from Italy are in the province of Otranto. Many dolmens have 
been reported from the region east of the River Jordan. At 
Roknia in Algeria there is a vast necropolis comprising some three 
thousand dolmenic tombs. Cornwall, Wales, and the neighboring 
islands form the principal English dolmenic zone. One of the 
most imposing dolmens of the British Isles is that of New Grange, 
near Drogheda, County Meath, Ireland. 

Megalithic monuments are widely distributed over the Iberian 
peninsula. They bear a general family resemblance to those of 
France. Worthy of special mention are three giant dolmens near 
Antequera (Malaga). The Cueva de Menga has an oval ground 
plan with an inner length of 25.4 meters (83.4 feet), a maximum 


122 HUMAN ORIGINS 


breadth of 6.1 meters (20 feet), and a height of some 3.0 meters 
(9.8 feet). The inner faces of the large supporting stones were 
worked to a comparatively plane surface. Near the center are 
three additional supporting stones made necessary by the great 
width of the structure. The chamber is covered by four great 
flagstones. The gallery, or antechamber, is short but wide. Gomez- 
Moreno states that rude stone implements were found within the 
chamber. The entire structure is covered by a tumulus. The Cueva 
del Romeral and the Cueva de Viera, both of the passage-grave 
type, are built of smaller stones. In each the stones used are 
worked to a flat surface and are smaller than those used at the 
Cueva de Menga. 

Dolmens with false vaulting or corbelling are by no means in- 
frequent in Spain. These belong to a later period than those with 
roofing stones large enough to span the distance between opposite 
supporting stones. Obermaier has recently worked out a relative 
chronology for the megalithic monuments of Spain. He would 
place the simple dolmens at the end of the Neolithic Period, also 
those with small or rudimentary antechamber or corridor. To the 
initial phase of the Age of Copper belong the passage graves and 
the giant chambers, the latter continuing throughout the age. Stone 
cists made their appearance during the early Bronze Age. In all 
countries dolmens serve a common purpose, that of sepulture. 

Origin of Dolmens.—The question of the origin of dolmens 
brings up the broader one of multiple origin of a given idea as 
opposed to transmission of the idea by contact. The geographic 
distribution of dolmens does not hold the key to a solution of this 
problem, although it is not inconsistent with the idea of transmis- 
sion by contact. 

There is a school whose creed is that the East is par excellence 
the birthplace of great ideas, which, as they mature, travel west- 
ward as inevitably as do the trade winds of the sea. There is 
another school which disputes the theory that all light comes from 
the Orient. Obviously much is yet to be learned concerning mega- 
lithic monuments in general, and dolmens in particular, before a 
final categorical answer can be formulated. 

There is already considerable evidence in support of the theory 
that the dolmen cult spread slowly westward and northward from 


THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD 123 


some center not far from the eastern end of the Mediterranean 
basin. Recently Elliot Smith presented the claims of Egypt as 
the probable center. He believes that the dolmens are degraded 
mastabas, the earliest form of Egyptian tomb. If this be true, one 
must think of the dolmen, not as the whole of the mastaba, but 
as its core, overgrown and stripped of nonessentials. The parts 
that are constantly represented in every dolmen correspond to the 
serdab (Arabic word meaning statue chamber) and the burial 
chamber, often merged into one. The stone with a large hole, 
found in dolmens so widely separated as western Europe, the 
Caucasus, and India, is thought by Elliot Smith to be “a striking 
witness to the reality of the serdab-conception in the dolmen,” and 
the dolmen itself to be the crude, overgrown copy of that part of the 
mastaba known as the serdab, which was supposed to be the dwell- 
ing of the deceased. 

Menlurs, Cromlechs, and Alinements.—Hardly less important 
than the dolmens are the long megaliths employed either singly 
or in series. The purposes which monuments of these classes 
served remain problematical. Apparently they are in no way con- 
nected with burials. It is highly probable that a single menhir 
served one purpose, while a group of menhirs forming a circle 
might have served wholly another purpose, and an alinement still 
another. The menhir might well have served as a cenotaph even 
in Neolithic times, as it is known to have done in subsequent periods. 
It might also mark an important event of some other nature. In 
commemoration of his dream Jacob erected a stone to mark the 
spot, and Samuel set up a stone after his victory over the Philistines. 
After the spread of Christianity in Gaul certain menhirs were con- 
verted into Christian monuments and remain so to this day. 

It is apparent that most of the great menhirs were erected by 
the same Neolithic race which built the megalithic dolmens. They 
are often found in close proximity to, or in association with, such 
dolmens. The giant menhir of Locmariaquer stood nearly twice 
the height of its two nearest rivals in France, Plesidy (Cotes-du- 
Nord) and Plouarzel (Finistére), each slightly more than 11 meters 
(36.1 feet) long. There are more than a dozen other menhirs in 
France varying in height from 8 to 9 meters (26.3 to 29.5 feet). 
The vast majority are from 1 to 5 meters (3.3 to 16.4 feet) high. 


124 HUMAN ORIGINS 


Menhirs, like the megaliths forming dolmens, are for the most 
part unworked stones (Frontispiece). Seldom does the shaping proc- 
ess play more than an insignificant role. At Quiberon a large men- 
hir nearly 5 meters (16.4 feet) high dominates a field of smaller 
menhirs. The large menhir, originally suggestive of a human 
effigy, bears marks intended to heighten the human-effigy effect. 
Some authors claim to find phallic forms in certain menhirs; others, 
notably Dechelette, deny such claims. 

It is a fact worthy of note that a few menhirs and dolmens in 
Brittany were planted so near the sea that they are now partially 
submerged at high tide, an indication that there has been a change 
in the land level of the region since the period of megalithic con- 
struction. 

The distribution of menhirs, cromlechs, and alinements does 
not coincide with that of dolmens, although all are seen perhaps 
to best advantage in Brittany. For the whole of France, A. de 
Mortillet’s list, completed in 1901, comprised a total of 6,192 men- 
hirs, including cromlechs and alinements. Every department in 
France is represented in the list, but over half the total number 
are found in Morbihan. 

A series of menhirs forming a circular or rectangular enclosure 
constitute a cromlech. This term does not apply, however, to the 
stones surrounding a tumulus, which are generally nondescript and 
placed in contact, forming a sort of barricade. ‘The veritable crom- 
lech may stand alone; sometimes it is associated with an alinement, 
as is the case at Ménec, Kerlescan, Crozon, Lestridiou, etc., in 
Brittany. 

A typical example of the cromlech is Er-Lanic on a small island 
of the same name off the Morbihan coast. It is a double cromlech, 
one circle of menhirs tangent to another circle. At present it is 
partly covered by the sea even at low tide; hence it must have been 
built at a time when the land level was higher than it is now. 
Within the limits of the two circles Closmadeuc found many pol- 
ished stone axes, crude black pottery, milling stones, ete. 

Fergusson listed as many as two hundred stone circles in the 
British Isles, but he seems to have included stone circles surround- 
ing tumuli, which do not belong in the category of cromlechs. Two 
of the greatest megalithic monuments of England, namely, Avebury 


THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD r29 


and Stonehenge, may be considered as belonging to the cromlech 
class. 

Avebury, in Wiltshire, the largest of British megalithic monu- 
ments, has all the elements that go to make up a great complex of 
cromlechs. The principal monument at Avebury consists of an al- 
most circular embankment of earth, with an average diameter of 
about 366 meters (1,200 feet), with a ditch inside. Near the 
inner margin of the ditch stood a circle of stones apparently about 
one hundred in number originally. Inside this large stone circle 
were two other double stone circles, each double circle averaging 
more than 91 meters (300 feet) in diameter. In the center of the 
northern double circle was a structure consisting of three upright 
stones and a capstone, in other words, a simple dolmen. At the 
center of the southern double circle there was a single menhir, 
according to Stukeley and Colt Hoare. The stones employed for 
all the circles are the so-called sarsen’ stones native to the local 
downs. None of the Avebury stones bears marks of the chisel. 

From the outer embankment an avenue lined by stones, known 
as Kennet avenue, extended southeastwardly in a straight line for 
a distance of some 1,308 meters (1,430 yards). The Avebury group 
comprises not only the Avebury circle and Kennet avenue, but also 
Silbury Hill, about 1,610 meters (1 mile) due south of Avebury, 
and perhaps the double oval on Hakpen Hill, known as Haca’s 
Pen. Silbury Hill evidently dates from the same period as the 
great circle and Kennet avenue; Haca’s Pen apparently belongs 
to a later epoch, its stones being much smaller and the plan dif- 
ferent. Silbury Hill is flat-topped and nearly round, with a basal 
diameter of 168 meters (552 feet) and a height of 40 meters (130 
feet). Excavations at Silbury Hill have apparently yielded no 
archeological results. 

Stonehenge, also in Wiltshire, is a worthy rival of Avebury and 
is perhaps even better known (Figs. 316 and 317). They have 
certain characters in common, although Stonehenge obviously be- 
longs to a later epoch than Avebury. A comprehensive bibliography 
of the two monuments is said to cover 160 pages. 

The enclosing circular embankment and ditch at Stonehenge, 








5 A silicious sandstone found as a deposit in the valleys between Salisbury 
and Swindon. . 


126 HUMAN ORIGINS 


which opened out at one point into an avenue flanked on each side 
by a ditch and bank, had a diameter of about I11.3 meters (365 
feet). The stone-circle complex in the center had a diameter of 
about 29.9 meters (98 feet). As restored, it consists of an outer 
circle of great stones, an inner semicircle of five great trilithons, 
a circle of small stones between the outer circle and the semicircle 
of trilithons, and a semicircle of small stones within the limits 





Fic. 316. ENSEMBLE VIEW OF STONEHENGE, WILTSHIRE, ENGLAND. 


The stone circle complex has a diameter of about 29.9 meters (98 feet). It consisted 
originally of an outer circle of great stones, an inner semicircle of five great trilithons, a 
circle of small stones between the outer circle and inner semicircle, a semicircle of small 
stones within the limits bounded by the trilithons, and a large *‘ Altar Stone ’’ within the 
semicircle of small stones. This great monument was erected during the late Neolithic 
or early Bronze Age, about 2100 B.c. 


bounded by the trilithons. Within the smaller semicircle there is 
a large stone, called the “Altar Stone,” which might have had 
relation with two other isolated stones, one of which is just inside 
the embankment and the other, known as the “Friar’s Heel,” out- 
side. A straight line drawn through these three stones is said to 
point approximately in the direction of the rising sun at the sum- 
mer solstice. 

The outer circle is supposed to have consisted originally of 
thirty stones spaced about equally and connected by a continuous 


THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD 127 


stone architrave. Fergusson states that only twenty-six of the 
upright stones can be identified, and only six of the stones com- 
posing the architrave are still in situ. Of the five great trilithons, 
the two upright members of the central one are 6.6 meters (21.6 
feet) in height. The other four are not quite so tall. 

All the stones composing the outer circle and the trilithons are 
the same stone that was used at Avebury, where however, it was 





Fic. 317. DETAIL VIEW OF STONEHENGE FROM THE ‘‘ ALTAR STONE.” 


The view was taken in the direction of the ‘‘ Friar’s Heel ’’ which can be seen outside 
the stone circle complex and between the two supporting stones of the central trilithon. 


used in the rough. At Stonehenge it was hewn into a shape fairly 
uniform throughout the series. In addition, each upright has at 
the top a tenon which fits into the mortised stones of the architrave. 

All the small stones within the limits of the great circle are 
cut from a volcanic rock, a species of bluestone, not native to the 
locality. In view of their relatively small dimensions, they might 
easily have been transported a considerable distance. Even the 
transport of the great sarsens was not a very serious matter, since 
they were found near-by and could have been assembled by means 
of rollers and ropes. Stonehenge is referred to the epoch of tran- 
sition between the Neolithic Period and the Bronze Age. 


128 HUMAN ORIGINS 


The problem as to what purpose was served by the imposing 
monuments of Avebury and of Stonehenge on Salisbury Plain 
has never been satisfactorily solved. Schuchhardt sees striking 
analogies between certain features of Stonehenge and the oldest 
Greek culture: the Altar Stone is a stela, to be thought of as 
originally the throne of the soul. Stonehenge, however, was not 
a temple, nor is there any astronomical significance in its orienta- 
tion. Moreover, it is to be dated by the contents of the near-by 
mounds composed largely of by-products of the construction period ; 
they contain culture remains that can be referred to the Bronze 
Age (Epoch II of Montelius, ca. 2100-1850 B.C.). 

Stone insists that the two circles at Stonehenge, one of sarsens 
and one of bluestone, are of the same age. The sarsens were erected 
first, and the erection of the bluestones was undertaken immediately 
afterward by the same builders. If the structure marks the direc- 
tion of the mid-summer sunrise at the time it was built, the date 
for the building “was probably not earlier than about 2040 B.C., 
and not later than about 1640 B.C.” It will thus be seen that 
Stone’s estimate does not differ materially from that of Schuch- 
hardt. 

Other stone circles in the British Isles, which belong in the 
same general class as Avebury, include Arbor Low in the parish 
of Bakewell (Derbyshire), Blisland in Cornwall, and Stennis and 
Brogar in the Orkneys. Arbor Low is now a national monument; 
it is situated on a long ridge about 366 meters (1,200 feet) above 
sea level and commands an extensive view toward Buxton and 
Bakewell. The embankment, or rampart, is on the outside; both 
it and the ditch are broken at the north and south by an opening 
or causeway. The forty-six stones inside the circular rampart and 
ditch (forty-two form a circle, at the center of which the other 
four stones are grouped) are all at present recumbent with one 
exception. The longest stone has a length of 4.32 meters (14.2 
feet), the largest is 3.96 meters (13 feet) in length. A human 
skeleton was found near the four stones at the center. Excava- 
tions under the direction of H. St. George Gray yielded very little 
in the way of relics: chipped stone implements including a flint 
dagger of late Neolithic type, flint flakes, flint hammerstones, a few 
earthenware vessels, but no metal of any sort. The conclusion 


THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD 129 


is that Arbor Low was constructed during the latter part of the 
Neolithic Period, or at the very latest, during the epoch of transi- 
tion from the Neolithic to the Bronze Age. 

An alinement is a series of menhirs ranged in rows. The best 
known monuments of this class are the alinements of Carnac in 
Brittany. With two interruptions, they extend in an east-west 
direction a distance of some 3 kilometers (2 miles). The three 
groups bear the names of the three adjoining villages, Menec, 
Kermario, and Kerlescan. 

The alinement of Ménec (see Fig. 308) consists of eleven rows 
of menhirs and a cromlech, making a grand total of 1,169 standing 
stones. The menhirs forming the group vary in height from less 
than I meter to 4 meters (3 to 13 feet). The 982 menhirs form- 
ing the alinement of Kermario are ranged in ten rows. The aline- 
ment of Kerlescan is built of 540 menhirs in thirteen rows, to which 
is attached a cromlech of thirty-nine menhirs enclosing a quad- 
rangular space. 

To the north of Carnac, in the commune of Erdeven, there is 
another important alinement composed of 1,129 menhirs ranged in 
ten rows over a distance of more than 2 kilometers (1.25 miles). 
One of the menhirs is pitted with cup-shaped figures. There are 
still other alinements in Morbihan, including Sainte-Barbe and 
Saint-Pierre-Quiberon, each with a cromlech attached; Vieux- 
Moulin, near the railway station of Plouharnel; and several now 
in ruins. 

Finistére also has its share of alinements: Lestridiou, with a 
cromlech at one extremity; Toulinguet, in the commune of 
Camaret; and Crozon, on the peninsula of the same name. Accord- 
ing to Déchelette, alinements properly so-called are peculiar to 
Brittany. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


Azere, Nils, Kulturgebiet in Mitteleuropa wahrend der j1ingeren Steinzett, 
xi+276 pp., 71 pls., 11 maps (Upsala, 1918). 

Armstronc, A. Leslie, ‘‘Flint-Crust Engravings and Associated Imple- 
ments from Grime’s Graves, Norfolk,’ PPSEA, i11, 434-443 
(1920-21). 


130 HUMAN ORIGINS 


CHATELLIER, P. du, La poterie aux époques préhistorique et Gaulotse en 
Armorique, 4to, 60 pp., 17 pls. (Paris, 1897). 

CLarKE, W. G. (editor), “Report on the Excavations at Grime’s 
Graves, Weeting, Norfolk,” 254 pp., PPSEA (March—May, 
IQI4). 

CriassENn, K., Die Volker Europas zur jungeren Steinzert, etc., 76 pp., 
2 maps (Stuttgart, 1912). | 

Cornet, F. L. (with A. Briart), “Sur Age de la pierre polie et les 
exploitations préhistoriques de silex dans la provence de Hainaut,”’ 
CIA, 279-299, 13 pls. (Brussels, 1872). 

DECHELETTE, J., “‘Une nouvelle interprétation des gravures de New 
Grange et de Gavr’inis,” Anthr., xxili, 29-52 (1912). 

Favraup, A., ‘‘Ateliers préhistoriques d’extraction de silex a La Petite- 
Garenne (Charente),” RA, xxi, 128-140 (1911). 

Fouju, G., ‘‘Les puits préhistoriques pour l’extraction du silex 4 Cham- 
pignolles, commune de Sérifontaine (Oise),” Anthr. ti, 445-455 
(1891). 

Fox, Col. A. Lane, “Excavations in Cissbury Camp, Sussex,” /AT, 
V, 357-390, 6 pls. (1876). 

FRAIPONT, Julien, ‘Les néolithiques de la Meuse,”’ BSAB, xvi, 81 pp., 5 
pls. (1900). | 

FRANCHET, L., Céramique primitive. Introduction a l'étude de la tech- 
nologie, 160 pp. (Paris, 1911). 

Gray, H. St. George, ‘“‘On the Excavations at Arbor Low,” Arch. Iviii, 
461-498 (1903). 

HaMAL-NANDRIN, Joseph (with Jean Servais), “La station néolithique 
de Sainte-Gertrude,”’ RA, xxxili, 345-492 (1923). 

Homes, W. H., ““An Ancient Quarry in Indian Territory,” Bur. Amer. 
Ethn., Bull. No. 21, 19 pp. (Washington, 1894). 

KNOWLES, W. J., ‘‘ The Antiquity of Man in Ireland,” JAJ, xliv, 83-121 
(1914). 

Kupxa, P. L. B., ‘‘Das Campignien im nordeuropaischen Glazialgebiet, 
ZE, XXX1X, 192-224 (1907). 

Mrstorr, Johanna, Moorleichen. gznd Bericht des Schleswig-Hol- 
steintschen Museums vaterlandisch. Altertiimer ber der Universitat 
Kiel (1900). 

Miuis, W. C., “Certain Mounds and Village Sites of Ohio: Flint 
Ridge,” Ohto Arch. and Hist. Quarterly, xxx, 90-161 (Columbus, 
1g2t). 

Mortitiet, A. de, ‘‘Campigny et le Campignien,’”’ BSA, 4th ser., x, 
36-62 (1899). 

MULLER, Sophus, ‘‘Les poignards en silex de l’Age de Pierre en Scan- 


THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD tet 


dinavie,”’ Nordiske Fortidsminder, 4 Hefte, 125-180, 6 pls. (Copen- 
hagen, 1902). 

Naer, A., “La cimetiére gallo-helvéte de Vevey,” Jour. des foutlles, 
64 pp. (February—April, 1898). 

— “La nécropole néolithique de Chamblandes (Canton de Vaud),”’ 

— Anthr., xii, 269-276 (1901). 

Perry, W. J., “The Problem of Megalithic Monuments and Their 
Distribution in England and Wales,’ Mem. and Proc. Man- 
chester Lit. and Philos. Soc., xv, No. 13, 27 pp. (1921). 

—, “The Cultural Significance of the Use of Stone,” zbid., Ixvi, 
No. 4, 16 pp. (1922). 

PFEIFFER, L., “Beitrag zur Kentniss der steinzeitlichen Fellbear- 

beitung,” ZE, xlii, 839-895 (1010). 

— “Beitrag zur Kentniss der steinzeitlichen Korbflechterei,” ZE, 
xlii, 369-380 (1910). 

PonTHIEUX, N., Archéologie préhistorique: Le Camp a’Catenoy (Oise), 
iv+165 pp., 41 pls. (Beauvais, 1872). 

Puypt, Marcel de, “‘Ateliér néolithique de Rullen et découvertes faites 
sur le territoire de Fouron-Saint-Pierre (prov. de Liége),’’ Bull. de 
VInstitut arch. Liégeots, xliii, 191-253 (1914). 

Rapinsky, W. (with M. Hoernes), Die neolithische Station von Butmir 
bet Sarajevo in Bosnien, Part I (1895); Fiala, Fr. (with M. Hoernes), 
abid., Part II (1808). 

REINACcH, 5., ‘La station néolithique de Jablanica (Serbie),’’ Anthr., 
xii, 527-533 (1901). 

REINERTH, Hans, Pfahlbauten am Bodensee, 82 pp. (Stuttgart-Augsburg, 
1922). 

SAINT-VENANT, J. de, “‘Tailleries de silex du sud de la Touraine,’’ 
CPF, 6th session, 256-299, 2 pls. (Tours, 1910). 

SaLmon, Philippe (with d’Ault du Mesnil and Capitan), ‘‘Le Campig- 
nien. Fouille d’un fond de cabane au Campigny, commune de 
Blagny-sur-Bresle (Seine-Inférieure),”’ REA, viii, 365-408 (1808). 

ScHenck, Alex, ‘‘Les squelettes préhistoriques de Chamblandes 
(Suisse),’’ REA, xiv, 335-378 (1904). 

Scuiiz, A., Das steinzettliche Dorf Grossgartach, 4to, 52 pp., 11 pls. 
(Stuttgart, 1901). 

Smitu, R. A., ‘The Development of Neolithic Pottery,” Arch., xu, 
340 (1910). 

— “On the Date of Grime’s Graves and Cissbury,” Arch., 1xiu, 
109-158 (1911-12). 

— “Our Neighbors of the Neolithic Period,” PPSEA, ii, 479-507 
(1918). 


132 HUMAN ORIGINS 


STERJNA, Knut, “Les groupes de civilization en Scandinavie a l’époque 
des sépultures a galerie,’’ Anthr., xxi, 1-34 (1910). 

Strocxis, E., “Les pétroglyphes de Gavr’inis et leur interprétation,”’ 
Anthr., XXX1, I-36 (i921). 

THOMSEN, Thomas (with A. Jessen), ‘‘Une trouvaille de l’ancien Age 
de la pierre. La trouvaille de Braband” (tr. by E. Philipot), 
Mém. Soc. roy. des antig. du nord, N. S., 162-232 (1904). 

THURNAM, John, ‘‘Ancient British Barrows,” Arch., xlii, 161-244 
(1869); tbid., xliti, 285-552 (1871). 

Vouca, Paul, ‘“‘Essai de classification du néolithique lacustre d’aprés 
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xxii, Heft 4 (1920); xxiii, Heft 3 (1921). 


CHAPTER XII 
THE STONE AGE CULTURE COMPLEX! 


The evolution of culture has its parallel in organic evolution, 
and, like the latter, its pathway is strewn with extinct forms. Of 
the two, cultural evolution is subject to more rapid changes, its chief 
basis being human inventiveness. One invention leads to others by 
a system of budding and branching, so that a single invention may 
give rise to a whole cluster of related activities forming what might 
be called a culture-complex unit. The oldest clusters of human 
activities of which we have definite knowledge are the lithic and 
fire complexes; the lithic complex was superseded in part and sup- 
plemented by the use of such organic materials as bone, ivory, 
and reindeer horn, which characterized the game-animal complex. 

The advent of the Neolithic Period witnessed a rapid develop- 
ment of new units or clusters of human activities, chief among 
them being the ceramic, textile, mining, building, domestication, 
transportation, barter, and wheel complexes, all of which are 
closely interrelated. The domestic horse became a pack and draft 
animal and the center of the horse complex, which has persisted 
even to our day. As long as man thought in terms of the horse, 
its place was secure and the automobile was impossible. With the 
passing of the horse there will go a multitude of accessories. This 
is only one illustration of the inception, growth, decay, and at least 
partial dissolution of a single cell in the culture complex. On the 
other hand, the wheel, originally closely associated with and de- 
pendent upon the horse (or draft-animal) complex and_ largely 
developed during the Age of Metals, by changing hosts has, with 


1Certain elements of the prehistoric culture complex, especially when they 
have no particular classificatory value, are treated to best advantage if followed 
vertically upward through succeeding epochs; this method will be followed 
in the present chapter. 


133 


134 HUMAN ORIGINS 


fire, become the chief binding element in the culture complex of the 
historic period. 

The use of fire, the wheel, and the use of metals remain among 
the most important of man’s acquisitions. When, where, and by 
whom did each first come into use? What ethnic type was 
responsible for each? These are questions the answers to which 
might form the basis for a discussion of some of the most interest- 
ing chapters bearing on human origins. 

Man is the most cosmopolitan of all animals. He can and does 
live in every clime and at practically all altitudes. His control 
over environment, aided by superior intellectual endowments and 
gained by long ages of struggle, has contributed to his conquest of 
space. During the Neolithic Period transportation facilities were 
very much increased through the use of pack animals and other 
load-saving devices. The discovery of the wheel and its applica- 
tion to transportation purposes was a still greater step in advance. 
With the appearance of the wheel the necessity for something more 
than a trail made itself felt. 

Man also became a navigator, by simple means at first and for 
short distances; then by complex means and for greater distances. 
Facilities on land and sea served to whet his appetite for adventure 
and conquest. Coincident with improved and increased travel 
facilities arose conditions favoring a mélange of races unknown to 
Paleolithic times. The result was that even as early as the Bronze 
Age, European man was well on the way to his present high degree 
of hybridization. 


THE TAMING OF FIRE 


By the taming of fire we have been able “to smooth down the 
rough creation which Nature flung to us.” This great elemental 
force has not yet been wholly subdued. When and how man first 
gained the initial step in its control is lost in the obscurity of a 
remote past. , 

The degree of civilization of any epoch, people, or group of 
peoples is measured by ability to utilize energy for human advance- 
ment or needs. Energy is of two kinds, internal and external or 
free. Internal energy is that of the human body or machine, and 


THE STONE AGE CULTURE COMPLEX 135 


its basis is food. External energy is that outside the human body, 
and its basis is fuel. Man has been able to tap the great store- 
house of external energy. Through his internal energy and that 
acquired from external sources, he has been able to overcome the 
Opposing energy of his natural environment. The difference be- 
tween these opposing forces is the gauge of civilization. 

Fire, the most potent external force ever acquired by man, 
occurs in nature; primeval man saw and felt it before he had any 
knowledge of how to produce it. The terrors of a forest fire were 
shared alike by man and beast; such a fire might arise from the 
eruption of a volcano, a bolt of lightning, or the rubbing together 
of two branches kept in motion by the wind. In the wake of a 
forest fire man might have come upon the roasted carcass of a 
game animal. The heat of the fire rendered the flesh more tender, 
palatable, and agreeable to the sense of smell. Moreover, the roast- 
ing process was found to be a preservative. Heat penetrates food 
and kills bacteria; furthermore, the traces of creosote and formalde- 
hyde in smoke and the complete evaporation of moisture render it 
less liable to infection. 

The heat and light given off by fire came to be associated in 
the mind of primitive man with the heat and light of the sun, 
and perhaps in a remote way with the heat of his own body and 
the phenomenon of life. Man observed that fire has its limitations 
—imust have combustibles to feed upon, is encouraged by winds, 
and has natural and insuperable barriers such as water, rock, bare 
soil, etc. Man also learned that when near to being extinguished, 
fire may be revived by the application of fresh fuel; he found too 
that by means of a brand it was possible to carry fire to the fuel, 
and no doubt this was done when the reverse process entailed the 
greater amount of labor. By reviving embers from a natural fire 
and by transplanting fire through the medium of brands, man found 
a means of roasting game killed in the hunt. It is thus probable 
that the utilization of fires started through purely natural processes, 
but kept alive and controlled for a time at least by artificial proc- 
esses, long antedated a knowledge of how to kindle fires by artificial 
means. 

Through fire the seasons were controlled, also day and night; 
by control of its heat, winter could be turned into summer, and 


136 HUMAN ORIGINS 


its light converted night into day. The light of the fire at night 
was also an element of safety against wild beasts. Fire not only 
softened the rigors of winter; it also rendered possible the habita- 
tion of regions where body heat and clothing alone would not 
suffice. The camp fire became the center about which the sum of 
human interests revolved; it served as a magnet to draw individuals 
together and offered environmental conditions which invited re- 
laxation, reflection, and exchange of ideas. It was the savior of 
the newly born infant and the chief comforter of old age. Through 
its beneficent influence the span of life has gradually lengthened 
and the sum total of human lives increased. In short, fire, and all 
that it stands for, has been the chief binding element of the human ~ 
culture complex, the torch by means of which man has been able 
to explore two worlds, the organic and the inorganic. 

It may be something more than a coincidence that fire can 
be struck with flint, out of which the first man-made tools were 
fashioned. If flint had failed to possess this combination of quali- 
ties, the first steps toward the taming of fire might have been de- 
layed for untold ages. One of the principal reasons for the ex- 
tremely slow progress in the evolution of culture during the Lower 
Paleolithic Period may be due to man’s inability to kindle a fire 
at will. 

Traces of fire, especially in the form of burnt flints, have been 
found in connection with habitation levels even antedating the 
Lower Paleolithic, for example, in the Pliocene of East Anglia; 
they have also been reported in Pre-Chellean horizons, but no well 
defined hearths have been recorded from deposits earlier than the 
Middle Paleolithic (Mousterian). The relative frequency with 
which charcoal and other evidences of localized fire maintenance 
are encountered in the Mousterian horizons points to at least a 
beginning toward the control of fire. The first step, however, did 
not include ability to produce fire at will. Although well acquainted 
with the use of fire, the Tasmanians, for example, knew no way of 
kindling it; they took great pains, however, to keep it always burn- 
ing, and if by chance it became extinguished, new fire was bor- 
rowed from a neighboring tribe. Similar practices were no doubt 
in vogue among early Paleolithic peoples. 

The first indubitable evidence of producing fire by artificial 


THE STONE AGE CULTURE COMPLEX 137 


apenas 


ae 7 
Saat 
=~ t_— 


hres 








9 











Fic. 318. PYRITES AND STRIKE-A-LIGHTS DATING FROM THE MAGDALENIAN EPOCH TO 
THE IRON AGE. 


1, Nodule of pyrites with a groove produced by a flint strike-a-light, from the cave of 
Chaleux at Furfooz, Belgium, Magdalenian Epoch; 2, flint strike-a-light from the Moselle 
Valley; 3, flint strike-a-light from central Jutland, Denmark; 4, flint strike-a-light made 
from a fragment of a dagger, central Jutland; 5, flint strike-a-light with polished margins 
from a giant dolmen at Lundforlund, Zealand, Neolithic Period; 6, flint strike-a-light from 
a Neolithic burial at Hoegild, Jutland; 7, flint strike-a-light from Saint-Symphorien near 
Mons, Belgium; 8, flint strike-a-light firmly attached to its nodule of pyrites by means of 
rust, from a Bronze Age burial at Hendriksholm, Zealand; 9, small flint dagger which has 
also served as a strike-a-light, from a Bronze Age tomb at Vesterland, Schleswig; 10, flint 
chisel which has served as a strike-a-light (marked by traces of pyrites), from a Bronze Age 
burial at Mogenstrup, Jutland; 11, flint strike-a-light altered by the action of fire, from a 
Bronze Age incineration burial, Jutland; 12, flint strike-a-light from a Bronze Age sepul- 
chral urn from Vium, Jutland; 13, strike-a-light of red quartzite with polished surface 
and a peripheral groove for suspension, from the peat bog of Soesum, Zealand; 14, strike-a- 
light of quartzite (right) and wooden tinder box (left), the two held together by means of 
a hinged mounting of bronze from the peat bog of Kragehul (Fiinen) Denmark; 15, nodule 
of pyrites showing marks of wear against a strike-a-light, from the peat bog of Thors- 
bjerg, Schleswig; 16, strike-a-light of iron from a Viking burial, Gotland, Sweden. 


Scale, ca. 3. After Sarauw. 


means is afforded by relics from the Upper Paleolithic Period; 
these relics include scarified lumps of pyrites and flints suitable for 
“strike-a-lights” (Fig. 318). One of the earliest discoveries of 


138 HUMAN ORIGINS 


this sort was a deeply scored nodule of pyrites found by Dupont 
in Magdalenian deposits of the Chaleux cave at Furfooz, Belgium. 
A block of pyrites with the end worn was found about the same 
time by Lartet and Christy in the cave of Les Eyzies (Dordogne). 
Flint scratchers and slug-shaped implements suitable for use in 
striking a fire from pyrites are of common occurrence in deposits 
of Aurignacian, Solutrean, and Magdalenian age. Another line of 
evidence bearing directly on the ability of the Upper Paleolithic 
races to produce fire at will is afforded by the mural art of dark 
caverns and the existence of stone lamps, by the light of which 
the artists executed engravings and frescoes. 

This is hardly the place to discuss at length the primitive 
methods still employed to produce fire in addition to the one by 
percussion (flint and pyrites) already mentioned. A common 
method is by friction, either by to-and-fro or by rotary motion. 
An effective primitive fire-making apparatus consists of two bam- 
boo sticks. A longitudinal groove is cut from the nether stick, 
and tinder is placed under the groove; the upper stick is passed 
back and forth, saw fashion, across the groove until the tinder is 
ignited. At a fire-making contest between primitive contestants 
from various parts of the world, planned by Mills and Starr at the 
St. Louis Exposition of 1904, the winner was a Negrito, using 
bamboo sticks—time, fifty-eight seconds. 

The uses of fire were perfected and multiplied during the 
Neolithic Period; it was made not only to fell a tree, but also 
to shape a dugout. Methods of curing meats and of cooking were 
perfected, and among coincident acquisitions must have been hot 
water, for both cooking and cleansing purposes. Fire tended both 
directly and indirectly to encourage community life and give 
permanency to the home. Without it the manufacture of pottery 
would have been impossible, and the use of pottery is an effective 
check to nomadism. 

That fire is the leaven chiefly responsible for the growth of 
the culture complex is perhaps seen to best advantage in the transi- 
tion from the Stone Age to the Age of Metals. Without it the 
transition could never have been effected, and the world would 
still be running on a Stone Age basis, for the simple reason that 
fire is essential to the reduction of metallic ores. 


THE STONE AGE CULTURE COMPLEX 139 


HUNTING 


Hunting is as old as humanity; when the human precursor 
traded the arboreal for the terrestrial domain, he became a hunter 
by necessity as well as by choice. As a hunting domain, the ter- 
restrial far surpasses in richness and variety the arboreal; for 
among its denizens are the herbiv- 
orous animals, and man has al- 
ways had a predilection for herbiv- 
orous game. 

Man has conquered the terres- 
trial domain because of his inven- 
tiveness, his abilty to harness ex- 
ternal forces. This aided him in 
combat with wild beasts as well 
as in killing or capturing game. 
Paleolithic man made use of the 
wooden club, the throwing’ stick, 
the bola, flint knife, javelin, dart 
thrower, and harpoon (Fig. 319). 
He was more dependent on the 
chase than his successors were, 
since his chief food supply was Fic. 319. HUMAN DORSAL VERTEBRA 





gained by hunting and fishing. BAEC RD tie eee EOIN, 
2 FROM THE CAVE OF MONTFORT, 
Although not so dependent ARIEGE, FRANCE. 


upon fish and game, the Neolithic The upper figure is the view from the 
‘ left side, and the lower the view from 

Begeeound them avery convenient ;..ccth. This discovery shows that 
supplement to the products of agri- Paloithie man wed, the, vel or 
culture. They continued to use Redrawn from Count Begouen. 
in modified form some of the 
weapons employed by the Paleolithic hunter, adding to their stock 
the bow and arrow and the hafted ax. Among the Stone Age 
contrivances use was made of the trap and pit. With the advent 
of the Bronze Age a marked improvement in weapons for the chase 
was witnessed. 

According to de Mortillet, sixty-six species of mammals were 
hunted in Paleolithic times, whereas the number during the Neo- 


lithic Period and the Bronze Age was only about half as great. 


140 HUMAN ORIGINS 


At the Neolithic pile village of Robenhausen, Rutimeyer found the 
ratio of wild to domesticated animals to be 35 to 49. In the 
Bronze Age bog station of Laibach, remains of wild animals pre- 
dominated in the ratio of 295 to 264. 





FIG. 320. NEOLITHIC BONE FLUTE FROM THE PILE VILLAGE OF CONCISE, VAUD, 
SWITZERLAND. 


Photograph by Tschumi. 


Although not so dependent upon hunting as their forebears 
were, the Neolithic and later races had a most useful aid in the 
domestic dog, which no doubt accounts, in part at least, for the 
favor with which hunting continued to be looked upon (Fig. 320). 


FISHING 


Man first began to fish, not for the pleasure of it, but for the 
purpose of increasing his food supply. The origin of fishing dates 
back to the Paleolithic Period, since, as we have shown, in an in- 
ventory of cave art one finds engravings of the fish. Fish bones, 
composed of a relatively great amount of animal matter and very 
little mineral matter, decay easily; nevertheless, they do occur even 
in Paleolithic deposits. Bones of the Spanish mackerel, eel, salmon, 
and trout have been reported from the Grimaldi caves near Men- 
tone. For France and Spain the list includes carp, eel, flounder, 
pike, plaice, salmon, and trout. Shellfish were also prized in pre- 
historic times. Before the close of the Paleolithic Period, shells 
began to play an important role as an ornament. 

In the Neolithic kitchen middens Gadus oeglefinus and Pleuron- 
ectes limanda are the species most abundant; bones of the herring 
and eel also occur. The chief food of the Neolithic coast dwellers, 
however, was shellfish, preference being shown for the oyster; 
Cardium edule, Mytilus edulis, and Littorina littorea, in the order 
given, were much in favor. 

At first, simple means of catching sufficed. The most primitive 


THE STONE AGE CULTURE COMPLEX 141 


known fishhook dates from the Paleolithic Period. It is a straight 
sliver of bone or reindeer horn, some 3 or 4 centimeters (1.2 to 
1.6 inches) long and pointed at both ends, the cord being attached 
to the center (Fig. 96). Many fishhooks of this type were found at 
the station of Bruniquel, near Montauban (Tarn-et-Garonne). The 
caves and rock shelters of the Dordogne have also yielded fish- 
hooks, not only of this primitive type, but also of more perfected 
types—barbed points of bone and reindeer horn, veritable har- 
poons, etc. (Figs. 98-100). 

Thanks to lake dwellings, we have numerous examples of ob- 
jects used in fishing by the Neolithic peoples. There is the well 
developed fishhook, recurved and sharp, with a groove near the 
base for attaching the cord, found at Moosseedorf (Berne), one of 
the very earliest Neolithic stations; it is made of the tusk of a wild 
boar. Straight bone points sharpened at each end and with a 
depression at the center for attaching the cord recur in Neolithic 
stations; good examples from Wangen, Lake Constance, are re- 
ported by Keller. The harpoon of staghorn is also found in the 
lake dwellings, for example, at Moosseedorf and at Saint-Aubin, 
Lake Neuchatel. 

The inhabitants of lake villages possessed even more efficient 
apparatus for catching fish. Fragments of fish nets of linen, each 
with its uniform mesh, have been preserved. Nets presuppose floats 
and weights, and these have likewise been found. 

Shells, an important by-product of prehistoric fishing, were used 
in industry and as an ornament. Twenty shells of Cypraca were 
deposited with the Magdalenian skeleton found at Laugerie-Basse 
—four on the frontal, two on each upper arm bone, four at each 
knee, and two at each foot. They had been brought from the 
Mediterranean and were perforated for suspension. Sixteen dif- 
ferent species of shells were employed in industry at Laugerie- 
Basse during the Upper Paleolithic Period. Mother-of-pearl, pearl, 
and coral were highly prized in prehistoric times. 


NAVIGATION 


The log was the prototype of the first canoe. The first step in 
the evolution of the canoe would be to point the ends of the log. 


142 HUMAN ORIGINS 


This primitive form of solid canoe has persisted down to modern 
times in but one part of the world, namely, on the coast of 
Australia. It required no small degree of ingenuity to take the 
next step by making a dugout. The primitive navigator probably 
thought only of providing a means to keep his load dry and his 
legs out of the water; in reality he builded better than he knew, 
for in providing a dry place for himself and his belongings, he not 
only lightened the weight of the vessel, but also increased its 
buoyancy. It is not known where this invention took place. 

We are not quite so much in the dark as to the original homes 
of the two other kinds of primitive vessels, the reed float and the 
raft made buoyant by means of inflated skins. The former seems 
to have originated on the Nile, and the latter on the Euphrates. 

There is evidence that the Paleolithic peoples had discovered 
the art of navigation, since the Azilians navigated the 8 kilometers 
(5 miles) of sea between the Island of Oronsay and the Scottish 
mainland. The oldest known boats are the Neolithic dugouts, 
carved from the trunk of a tree, usually oak. The shaping of this 
primitive vessel was done by means of stone implements aided by 
the use of fire. 

In 1865 Raffaello Foresi discovered on the Island of Elba a 
Neolithic workshop where nine-tenths of the materials used were 
varieties of flint and quartz common to the mainland but not to the 
island—conclusive proof of commercial intercourse by means of 
water transportation between the Neolithic dwellers on the island 
and those on the continent. On the Island of Pianosa, halfway 
between Corsica and the Italian coast, Foresi found obsidian nuclei 
which had been brought from the mainland, since obsidian is 
foreign to Pianosa. 

Some of the Swiss lake dwellings belong wholly to the Neolithic 
Period. When completed, these villages were connected with the 
shore by means of a bridge; but in the construction of the village, 
in the driving of the piles and the building of the platforms, boats 
were necessary. In some rare cases the villages were never con- 
nected with the shore, as, for example, those in Lake Varese, 
northern Italy; boats were thus indispensable at all times. 

Examples of these primitive boats have been recovered from 
various Swiss lake dwellings. Ferdinand Keller reproduces ex- 


THE STONE AGE CULTURE COMPLEX 143 


amples from Robenhausen and the lake of Bienne (Fig. 321). 
Robenhausen is a purely Neolithic station, so that the dugout found 
there dates from that period. Of the many boats from the lake 
of Bienne mentioned by Desor, one found near Saint-Pierre Island 
was still laden with stones intended as packing for the piles. It 
is 15 meters (49.2 feet) long, nearly 1.5 meters (4.9 feet) wide, 
and made from the trunk of a giant oak; it dates from the Neo- 





FIG. 321. NEOLITHIC DUGOUTS, THE EARLIEST BOATS KNOWN TO HAVE BEEN USED 
BY MAN. 


No. 1, from Mo6ringen, Lake of Bienne; No. 2, from Robenhausen; No. 3, from Saint- 
Aubin-en-Charollais. After Keller and Bonnet. 


lithic Period. There are transverse foot rests at intervals and 
two seats near the preserved end. The other end was sawed off in 
order to make the boat fit into the basement of the museum at 
Bienne. 

Boats, some of Neolithic age and others dating from the Bronze 
and Iron Ages, have been found in other parts of Europe. A num- 
ber have come to light in Scandinavia. Many of the Scandinavian 
pictographs belonging to the Bronze Age represent boats longer 
and more formidable than those of the earlier period (Fig. 322). 


144 HUMAN ORIGINS 


Buchannan states that no less than seventeen canoes had been 
found in the estuarine silt of the Clyde at Glasgow during the 
eighty years prior to 1855. Others have been found there since 
that time. They lay at depths of from 1.5 to 5.8 meters (5 to 
19 feet). Nearly every one of these vessels was hollowed out of 
a single oak stem by means of stone tools aided by the action of 
fire. In one of the boats was a beautifully polished celt of green- 
stone; in the bottom of another, a cork plug, testifying to traffic 
















































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































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Fic. 322. BRONZE AGE PICTOGRAPHS REPRESENTING SOLAR-BARKS FROM BORGE, 
NORWAY. 


The sun was supposed to make his return journey by night on the water and therefore 
to have required a boat. The sun is represented in various ways—dots, dotted circles, and 
wheels. After Montelius. 


with Spain or some other distant country. A few of the boats 
were evidently shaped by the use of metal tools. Two of them 
which were of plank construction presumably belong to the Iron 
Age. One of these was 5.5 meters (18 feet) long, with a prow 
resembling the beak of an antique galley. The planks were fastened 
to the ribs in part by oaken pins and in part by metal nails, squarish 
in section, which had entirely disappeared. 

In the museum of the Royal Irish Academy are several ancient 
boats. One of these, 7 meters (23 feet) long, is formed from the 
trunk of an oak tree; in its bottom were found a wooden vessel 


THE STONE AGE CULTURE COMPLEX 145 


for removing water and two poles which were probably used in — 
pushing the boat from shore. In carving out the interior, three 
ribs had been left in relief to give strength and to provide foot- 
rests for the boatmen. 

Perhaps the finest dugout yet recovered in France is from the 
Lake of Chalain (Jura). Associated with it were numerous im- 
plements of stone, bone, and staghorn. It is of oak and measures 
9.35 meters (30.7 feet) in length. The prow lines of the stern 
are not unlike those of modern times. The hole in the bottom 
filled by an oak plug was probably intended for a mast. This fine 
specimen is preserved in the museum at Lons-le-Saunier. While 
the dugout was the only type of boat known in Neolithic times, it 
persisted for a considerable period during the Age of Metals. 

A Viking ship was found in a mound at Oseberg in 1903. 
It is beautifully carved and nearly as large as the Gokstad ship 
described below, but not so well preserved. The contents included 
a loom with tapestry, luxuriously ornamented sleds, and a carriage 
of fine workmanship, but no weapons. 

A large boat in an excellent state of preservation, dating from 
about the fifth century A.D., was found in 1863 at Nydam, north- 
east of Flensburg in the Duchy of Schleswig, by the Danish 
archeologist Engelhardt. ‘This vessel, which had no mast and was 
evidently propelled by means of oars, is preserved in the Kiel 
Museum. 

This, the second ancient boat found at Nydam, is of oak and 
clinker-built; the planks were held together by iron bolts at inter- 
vals of about 14 centimeters (5.5 inches), and the calking was 
done with a woolen stuff and pitch. The planks were cut from 
the finest of timber, the bottom plank being 14.2 meters (48 feet 
6 inches) long and of one piece. The boat is 23.48 meters (77 
feet) long from stem to stern and proportionately rather broad 
in the middle, namely, 3.3 meters (10 feet 10 inches) ; it carried 
twenty-eight oars. The rudder was found at the side of the boat, 
about 3 meters (10 feet) distant from the stem; it is 2.9 meters 
(9 feet 7 inches) long and is pierced midway by a hole through 
which a rope may have been passed for the purpose of tying it to 
the side of the boat. Under the hole there is a wooden cushion 
to protect the rudder from injury by knocking against the side of 


146 HUMAN ORIGINS 


the boat; this is the most ancient form of rudder known. The boat 
had apparently been sunk intentionally, as indicated by the holes 
which Engelhardt found cut in the plank below the water line. 

A vessel said to date from about 300 B.C. was found in 1922 
in the Hjortspring bog (Schleswig) and is now preserved at the 
National Museum, Copenhagen. Shields, spears, swords, etc., were 
found in the vessel, which was built of elm and propelled by ten 
oars. The total length is 13 meters (42.5 feet), and the width 2 
meters (6.5 feet). 

The Viking period was notable for the progress made in naviga- 
tion. According to ancient manuscripts, the custom of ship burial 
prevailed; the existence of this custom has been confirmed by 
archeological researches. In 1867 a grand tumulus was opened at 
Tune, near Frederikstad in southern Norway. It contained a ship, 
inside of which was a man with his arms and his two horses. 
Thanks to the clay covering, the greater part the ship was almost 
intact. It belongs to a later date than the ship from Nydam. 
Although the two are of similar construction, there is one marked 
difference—the ship from Tune had a mast. Its length of keel 
was Over 12 meters (39.4 feet). 

Of even greater importance was the ship burial uncovered at 
Gokstad, near Sandefjord, also in southern Norway but on the 
opposite (west) side of Christiania Fjord (Fig. 323). This ship, 
like the one from Tune, was also covered by a clay deposit and hence 
well preserved; both are in the collections of the University of 
Christiania. From bow to stern the ship measures nearly 24 meters 
(78.8 feet), with a maximum breadth of more than 5 meters (16.4 
feet). It is of oak, clinker-built; the boards are secured by means 
of iron nails, and the seams are calked with oakum. There was a 
single mast and sixteen pairs of oars; the latter vary in length, 
those from amidship being the longer. They were plied through 
holes bored in the third stroke from the top; when the oars were un- 
shipped, these holes could be stopped by means of sliding covers 
which prevented the sea from entering. There is no trace of 
thwarts or seats for the oarsmen. As shown in the illustration, 
the ship was decorated with thirty-two shields on each side. In 
a funeral chamber just back of the mast, the chieftain was in- 
humed with his arms and with the remains of twelve horses, six 


THE STONE AGE CULTURE COMPLEX 147 


dogs, and a peacock by his side. In the ship were four supports 
for a tent cloth, as well as bits of the cloth and attaching cords. 
The rudder was hung a little forward of the sternpost on the right- 
hand side, as was usual in vessels of the Viking period and, indeed, 
down to the fourteenth century: hence the word “starboard,” or 
steering board, to indicate the right side of a ship, a term still 
common to all English and Teutonic languages (the term “lar- 
board” is now practically supplanted by “port,” thus avoiding the 





FIG. 323. VIKING SHIP FROM GOKSTAD, NEAR SANDEFJORD, NORWAY. 


This ship, nearly 24 meters (about 78 feet) long dates from the late Iron Age. It was 
found in 1880 and is now preserved at the University of Christiania. 


use of two like-sounding terms). The Gokstad ship dates from 
the late Iron Age, about 800 A.D. 

According to Elliot Smith, the main lines in the history of 
naval architecture were laid down in Egypt about 5,000 years ago, 
and the Egyptians had been building large wooden seagoing ships 
for two millennia before the time of Pliny. The earliest known 
representation of a seagoing ship was found in the tomb of the 
Egyptian king Sahure of the Fifth Dynasty (2600 B.C.) ; it already 
displayed ‘‘most of the essential features which persisted for many 
centuries in seagoing vessels,” the distinctive curve of the hull, 


148 HUMAN ORIGINS 


the high stern, and the representation of eyes upon the bow all 
being present. It had a two-limbed mast. It is pointed out that 
this ladderlike construction, which was in vogue in Egypt 5,000 
years ago and which was superseded prior to 2000 B.C., is still 
being used in Burma and the Celebes; moreover, the Burmese boats 
retain the same distinctive form of hull, high stern, sails, and rig- 
ging as the ship of Sahure. 

The earliest rudder was a “simple paddle held on the quarter, 
or a paddle-shaped rudder slung at the head on a stout upright, and 
held at the neck by a rattan lashing,” a type still in use on Malay 
dugouts, according to Warington Smyth. It was used by the first 
navigators of the Mediterranean and with slight modifications re- 
mained in use in western Europe down to medieval times. In 
Siam the king’s state barge is still steered by two men with long 
steering paddles in precisely the same way that the Egyptian boats 
of the Third Dynasty were steered. 

Warington Smyth is also authority for the statement that the 
idea of using the steering oar in the median position at the stern 
can be traced back to the Twelfth Dynasty; but the modification 
of its shape and method of attachment (slung upon the sternpost 
by pentle and gudgeon (as in use to-day dates only from thé be- 
ginning of the fourteenth century, and hence took thirty-four cen- 
turies (after the Twelfth Dynasty) to be accomplished. 

There are historical records to prove that in the Third Dynasty 
(ca. 2900 B.C.) Egyptian ships were trading in the Mediterranean 
as far as Syria and in the Red Sea as far as the Bab-el-Mandeb. 
There is reason to believe with Elliot Smith that these were not the 
only Egyptian maritime expeditions. The Field Museum, Chicago, 
possesses a mortuary boat of Sesostris III, dating from about 
1850 B.C., which is made of cedar of Lebanon and is 1.15 meters 
(30 feet) long, 2.44 meters (8 feet) wide, and 1.22 meters (4 feet) 
deep. 

In predynastic Egypt the bark dedicated to the dead played an 
important role in the art of the time. J. de Morgan reproduces 
examples from Diospolis parva, Nagada, El Amrah, and Negadah, 
also from rock paintings at Chatt-el-Regal (Upper Egypt). These 
are represented as having many oars, including a steering oar for 
the rudder. 


THE STONE AGE CULTURE COMPLEX 149 


THE WHEEL 


Means of transport are at the base of all civilization. They 
have been developed enormously during the past dozen decades, 
so much so that one is apt to overlook their important bearing on 
human welfare and to forget, or remain ignorant of, their humble 
beginnings. 

The ancient hunter who succeeded in killing a large animal had 
either to leave the greater part of the carcass where the beast fell 
or else drag it over the uneven surface of the earth. Dragging 
would injure the skin, a useful part of the booty, and recourse 
was had to the limb of a tree, the branches of which would afford 
the needed protection. From this simple drag device developed 
the sled, particularly efficient during the winter months in tem- 
perate and cold climates. 

The sled was widely used at an early date even in such countries 
as Egypt, and its efficiency was multiplied by pouring a lubricating 
liquid in front of the moving runners. In Egypt we have linguistic 
proof, as pointed out by Forestier, that the sled antedated the 
wheel. Among the ancient hieroglyphs there is no ideographic 
symbol signifying wheel or wagon. One does find, however, the 
ideograph for sled, which is even used with two differing pronun- 
ciations depending on the words into the composition of which it 
enters. 

Increase in the efficiency of the power employed can be had by 
the use of rolling pins or poles under the sled runners. This 
method is known to have been employed by the ancient Assyrians 
at an early date. Two difficulties beset the use of rolling pins: the 
process is slow, and the direction of the movement is difficult to 
control. For this reason the rolling pin has not played an impor- 
tant part in the evolution of traction. 

Primitive man did not have to be a keen observer to perceive 
the possibility of taking advantage of the form of a cylindrical or 
rotund body as an aid to the process of transportation. The dis- 
covery of a means of applying the motive force to such a body 
was by no means so simple. It led first to the preparation of ter- 
minal axle attachments in line with the axis of rotation, thus pro- 
ducing the roller which is still in use, and finally to the nonrotating 


150 HUMAN ORIGINS 


axletree supported by the wheel. Aranzadi describes carts still 
in use among the Basques that are built so as easily to break the 
connection between wheels and axle and the carrying frame. 

The first wheels were evidently sections from tree trunks. The 
wheel rotating on its axis is said to have been in use by the Chinese 
as early as 2697 B.C. For obvious reasons, the section of a tree 
trunk soon gave place to the wheel composed of more than one 
piece of wood. The next step was to lighten the wheel by cutting 
away as much of the inner portion as possible. A wheel composed 
of three pieces of wood with the inner portion cut away was found 
in a peat bog at Mercurago, associated with tools and utensils of 
Gallic origin (Bronze Age) and dating from about 1500 B.C. A 
plaster cast of this wheel is preserved in the museum at Saint- 
Germain. 

A later and better method of making the wheel light was the 
use of spokes, but this change could hardly have taken place prior 
to the use of the metal tire. The combination of the metal tire 
and spokes likewise added much to the strength and life of the 
wheel. Until this combination took place, transportation by means 
of wheeled vehicles must have been limited indeed. 

Both horse and war chariot are said to have been unknown in 
Egypt prior to the invasion of the Nile Delta by the Hycksos about 
2300 B.C. Subsequent to this date one finds numerous representa- 
tions of the spoked wheel and chariot, also of the horse. The 
Metropolitan Museum, New York, possesses a wheel 89 centimeters 
(2 feet 11 inches) in diameter with six spokes, found in a mummy 
pit at Dashour. 

The wheel complex is so largely and inextricably interwoven 
into the fabric of modern civilization that one is unthinkable with- 
out the other. Take away fire and the wheel and the world would 
suddenly revert to a sub-Neolithic level. By the aid of the wheel the 
evolution of civilization has gone on with a rapidity which makes 
all anterior progress seem slow indeed. 

Three things were necessary for the growth of the wheel com- 
plex—motive power, roadway, and metal. The primeval motive 
power was man, but to man power there was soon added the dog, 
horse, ox, etc.; the invention of the wheel and the domestication 
of animals were approximately contemporaneous ‘and were no 


THE STONE AGE CULTURE COMPLEX £5 


doubt mutually interdependent—the existence of one encouraged 
that of the other. The wheel is a Neolithic invention, but its use 
was extremely limited until after the discovery of metals. The 
efficiency of the wheel is likewise contingent upon fixed lines of 
travel, and these could hardly have been anything but very primi- 
tive until improvements were called forth through progress in 
vehicular construction. The evolution of wheeled vehicles and im- 
proved travel routes are means to an end, that end being the 
creation of national and international commercial and intellectual 
contact. 


THE DOMESTICATION OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS 


Of some seventy species of animals, the remains of which occur 
in Neolithic lake dwellings, at least six were domesticated: the 
dog, horse, ox, sheep, goat, and pig. By far the most numerous 
are the remains of the ox and the red deer (a nondomesticated 
species ), which equal those of all the other species combined. Ac- 
cording to Pittard and Reverdin, the first five domesticated animals 
to appear in Neolithic pile-village stations of Lake Neuchatel are 
the ox, hog, dog, sheep, and goat, the first three being the most 
numerous. All five are found in the lowest archeological level 
at Auvernier; they seem to have arrived, therefore, at the same 
time. The horse was neither domesticated nor hunted as a game 
animal on the shores of Lake Neuchatel. 

The Neolithic pile dwellers had a decided preference for beef 
and pork; they also preferred adult animals, with the exception 
of the hog, which was often eaten very young. The calf and the 
kid were never eaten until partly grown. 

Whence came the origin of the domestication of animals? The 
first domesticated animals in Europe might have been importations. 
It is not safe, however, to conclude from this that all that followed 
in Neolithic times were likewise importations. Almost all animals 
may be tamed, and some may be domesticated. The domestication 
of animals has had several independent centers of origin—Euro- 
Asia, Indo-China, Africa, and the New World. Indo-China is to be 
credited with the chicken, peacock, buffalo, elephant, and zebu. 
The aboriginal races of the New World had already domesticated 


152 HUMAN ORIGINS 


the alpaca, guinea pig, llama, and turkey before the arrival of Co- 
lumbus. The domestication of the ass and the cat is thought to 
have taken place in Africa. The Euro-Asiatic field has contributed 
a large share to the sum total of animal domestication. 

The Dog.—The dog was the first animal to be domesticated, 
and for a long time it was the only species in this class; it remains 
to this day the most completely domesticated of animals. Remains 
of the domestic dog have been found in practically all Neolithic 
and Bronze Age deposits of Europe. By the end of the Bronze 
Age one finds several races developed, the most marked being a 
grayhound type in Austria and a mastiff type in Savoy. The gray- 
hound type of dog is frequently represented in the art of early 
Egypt—a large grayhound with straight ears, consecrated to 
Anubis, which has its counterpart in Canis simensis, the present 
wild dog of Abyssinia and parts of the African interior. Aristotle 
(350 B.C.) mentions seven races of dogs. The bulldog is rep- 
resented on a bronze situla from the Certosa at Bologna (proto- 
or pre-Etruscan ). 

The Cat.—No trace of the domestic cat has been found in the 
Neolithic of Europe; its earliest occurrence is in Egypt, where it 
is figured on the monuments and is found mummified. At each 
overflow of the Nile there was a pest of rodents taking refuge in 
the human habitations. The cat was found to be the best means 
of combating this recurring nuisance, hence its domestication and 
the part it played in the beliefs and practices of the people. Mum- 
mified cats fill whole cemeteries at Bubastis. The domestic cat 
crosses easily with two wild species of Africa, both of which were 
mummified in great numbers by the Egyptians. 

The Hog.—Remains of the wild boar are found in the Pale- 
olithic deposits of Europe. The domestic hog, Sus scrofa palustris, 
occurs abundantly in Neolithic and Bronze Age stations. Accord- 
ing to Mariette, the Egyptians of the Fifth Dynasty (2750- 
2625 B.C.) had the domestic hog but did not possess the buffalo, 
camel, chicken, or sheep. 

The Horse.—The remains of the horse are abundant in Pale- 
olithic deposits, and it plays a more important part in cave art 
than any other animal. Its bones are encountered also in Neolithic 
stations, but there is no convincing evidence of its having been 


THE STONE AGE CULTURE COMPLEX 153 


domesticated. With the Bronze Age, however, the presence of 
the bridle bit and harness trappings no longer leave room for doubt. 
At Bologna and Este horses are often represented on bronze vases 
as held by a halter or hitched to vehicles, but more often mounted 
by soldiers. In Hallstatt (first epoch of the Iron Age) tumuli of 
France, Germany, and Switzerland, bones of the horse are often 
found with those of his master. The horse is not represented in 
Egyptian art until the beginning of the Eighteenth Dynasty 
(1350 B.C.). The earliest Egyptian text making mention of the 
chariot dates from about the same time. According to de Mortil- 
let, the domestication of the horse first took place in Turkestan. 

The Ox.—The domestic ox came from the wild ox of the Pale- 
olithic Period. Remains of the ox are abundant in Neolithic sta- 
tions, forming an appreciable part of the kitchen refuse. The 
Neolithic pile village of Concise has furnished two species of the 
domestic ox, one large, the other small and similar to the present 
Black Forest breed of cattle. Two species of ox, one large and 
the other small, are also found in the Bronze Age terremare of 
Italy. Montelius describes a Bronze Age rock engraving from 
Bohuslan (Sweden) which represents two oxen pulling a four- 
wheeled vehicle. The domestic ox is figured on early Egyptian 
monuments, and the worship of the bull Apis dates from as early 
as the Fifth Dynasty. Milk and its products were made use of 
even in Neolithic times, as is witnessed by the churn dasher found 
at Robenhausen. Special bowls, pierced for use in the manufacture 
of curd, and cheese moulds date from the Bronze Age. 

The Sheep.—Bones of the sheep are found in both Neolithic 
and Bronze Age lake dwellings of the Alps and in the terremare 
of Italy. In Egypt the sheep was the symbol of Ammon. Sheep 
shears constructed on a plan similar to those of to-day date from 
the Iron Age. 

Domestic Fowl.—The domestic goose dates back to the earliest 
Egyptian dynasties. In a tomb of the Fifth Dynasty, Mariette 
found four varieties of the goose. The wild goose of Egypt is 
easily domesticated. Homer speaks of but two domestic birds, the 
goose and the pigeon. The domestication of the duck came later 
than that of the goose, and yet it played a very important role in 
art. The pigeon, like the goose, was domesticated at an early period 


154 HUMAN ORIGINS 


in Egypt, the chicken not until later. Domestication was extended 
to include certain invertebrates, such as the honeybee and the 
oyster. 

The lake villages of Switzerland afford abundant evidence of 
the extent to which animals were domesticated during the Neolithic 
Period. The list includes the dog (Canis familiarts palustris) 
found at Ltischerz, Schafis (Chavannes), and Lattrigen; three kinds 
of ox: (1) Bos taurus primigenius from Font and Sutz; (2) Bos 
taurus brachyceros, Lattrigen, Schafis, and Vinelz; and (3) a horn~ 
less variety, Bos taurus akeratos, from Sutz; two varieties of pig: 
(1) Sus scrofa palustris, Lattrigen, Moosseedorf and Wauwil; 
(2) Sus scrofa domesticus; the goat (Capra lircus rutimeyert), 
Sutz and Vinelz; and the sheep (Ovts arics palustris), Font and 
Schafis. 

The Bronze Age in Switzerland witnessed the introduction of 
several new species or varieties of domesticated animals and at 
least one new genus (Equus). The new elements include two new 
varieties of dog: (1) Camnts matris optime, from Moringen and 
Greing; (2) a wolfhound (Canis familiaris inostrangewt), occur- 
ring at Font in deposits which seem to represent the transition from 
the Neolithic to the Bronze Age; a new variety of goat (Capra 
lircus kelleri) ; a variety of merino-like sheep (Ovts aries studert), 
Liischerz; and the horse (Equus caballus orientalis), Liischerz. 

The Iron Age in Switzerland seems to have added nothing 
new to the list of domesticated animals except two varieties of 
dog: (1) a deerhound (Canis familiaris leinert), from Constance 
and (2) (Canis familiaris intermedius), from Greing. 

Plants—Much of our knowledge concerning the domestication 
of plants we owe to pile dwellings, since they offer the conditions 
necessary for the preservation of substances that otherwise would 
soon fall into decay. Thanks to the researches of Heer, Neuweiler, 
and others, the number of known prehistoric species of plants 
exceeds 200, of which about 170 are reported from Switzerland 
Among the most important in the list are wheat, oats, rye, barley, 
flax, grape, strawberry, apple, pear, etc. 

Many of these were domesticated as early as the Neolithic 
Period. Wheat was the most common cereal; three varieties of 
wheat and two of barley were cultivated. The principal Neolithic 


THE STONE AGE CULTURE COMPLEX 155 


textile? was flax, not the modern species, but one with narrow 
leaves Linum angustifolium, which still occurs spontaneously in 
Mediterranean countries. Hemp was unknown. 

Neolithic milling stones are abundant, not only in pile dwell- 
ing stations but also in village sites on land. They consist of a flat 
stone of compact texture, generally grit, and a smaller hand stone, 
both of which are worn by usage. Grinding the grain seems to 
have been the work of women, since in the great Neolithic necrop- 
olis near Worms the milling stones are associated with female 
burials. Loaves of bread, made evidently without the use of 
yeast, have been found in Neolithic lake dwellings. 

In Switzerland, during the Neolithic Period, plants were sae 
vated for food, for the fiber, and, in at least one case, for the 
production of an opiate. Two species of barley have been recorded, 
one (Hordeum vulgare) from Robenhausen and the other (H. 
distichon) from Wangen. Three species of wheat occur: Triticum 
dicoccum at Greifensee, Robenhausen, and Wangen; 7. mono- 
coccum at Robenhausen; and T. vulgare at Robenhausen and 
Wangen. Two kinds of millet have been reported: Paniculum 
miliaceum from Wangen and Setaria italica from Robenhausen. 
The pea (Pisum sativum) has been found at Robenhausen and 
Steckborn; and the lentil (Ervum lens) at Luscherz and St. Blaise. 
Flax (Linum sp.) must have been quite widely cultivated for its 
fiber, since it has been reported from a number of lake villages 
including Moosseedorf, Robenhausen, Steckborn, and Wangen. 
The poppy (Papaver somniferum) has been found at Moosseedorf, 
Robenhausen, and Steckborn and is to be numbered among the 
plants cultivated by the Neolithic lake dwellers of Switzerland, 
who also domesticated the apple (Pyrus malus). 

In addition to the foregoing, there are several plants that might 
have been cultivated, although the evidence is not sufficient to re- 
move them from the doubtful class. They are: (1) the pigweed 
(Chenopodium album) from Robenhausen, Steckborn, and Wan- 
gen; (2) the parsnip (Pastinaca sativa) from Moosseedorf and 
Robenhausen; (3) the carrot (Daucus carota) from Roben- 





2It may be that wool was also employed in the textile industry, since the 
sheep is counted among the animals domesticated as early as Neolithic times. 


156 HUMAN ORIGINS 


hausen (?); (4) the walnut (Juglans regia) from Wangen and 
Bleiche-Arbon; and (5) the grape (Vitis vinifera) from St. Blaise. 

The Neolithic population still drew heavily on the resources 
of wild plant life both for food and fiber, and in two instances 
for coloring matter. The following list is taken from C. Schroter: 


Oak (Quercus robur), Robenhausen, Wangen, and many other 
stations. 

Beechnut (Fagus silvatica), Robenhausen, Steckborn, and Wan- 
gen. | 

Hazelnut (Corylus avellana), Robenhausen, etc., very plentiful. 

Waternut (Trapa natans), Moosseedorf and Robenhausen. 

Mountain ash (Sorbus aucuparia), Moosseedorf and Robenhausen. 

Crab apple (Pyrus malus), Robenhausen, Steckborn, and Wangen. 

Wild pear (Pyrus communis), Robenhausen and Wangen. 

Strawberry (fragaria vesca), Robenhausen, Steckborn, and Wan- 
gen. 

Dog rose (Rosa canina), Robenhausen, Steckborn, and Wangen. 

Raspberry (Rubus idaeus), Moosseedorf, Robenhausen, and Wan- 
gen. 

Blackberry (Rubus fruticosus), Moosseedorf, Robenhausen, and 
Wangen. 

Sweet cherry (Prunus avium), Moosseedorf, Robenhausen, and 
Steckborn. 

Damson plum (Prunus insititia), Robenhausen and Steckborn. 

Plum (Prunus domestica), Schweizersbild. 

Blackthorn (Prunus spinosa), Robenhausen, Steckborn, and Wan- 
gen. 

Bird cherry (Prunus padus), Robenhausen, Steckborn, and Wan- 
gen. 

Mahaleb cherry (Prunus mahaleb), Robenhausen and Steckborn. 

Whortleberry (Vaccinium myrtillus), Robenhausen. 

Elderberry (Sambucus nigra), Robenhausen, Steckborn, and 
Wangen. 

Dwarf elder or danewort (Sambucus ebulus), Moosseedorf, 
Robenhausen, and Steckborn. 

Knot weed (Polygonum convolvulus), Robenhausen and Steck- 
born. 

Linden (Tilia platyphyllos), Robenhausen and St. Blaise; (T. 
cordata), Robenhausen. 

Yellow weed (Reseda Iuteola), Robenhausen. 


THE STONE AGE CULTURE COMPLEX 157 


Schroter also gives a list of trees, the wood of which was util- 
ized by the Neolithic peoples of Switzerland: 


Yew (Tarus baccata), Ergolzwil and Robenhausen. 

Pine (Picea excelsa), Robenhausen (pile). 

Silver fir (Abies alba), Burgaeschii (plentiful), Ergolzwil, Roben- 
hausen. 

Scotch fir (Pinus silvestris), Robenhausen (rare). 

Willow (Salix), Niederwil. 

Poplar (Populus), Niederwil. 

Hornbeam (Carpinus betulus), Burgaeschii and Schotz. 

Alder (Alnus sp.), Burgaeschii and Ergolzwil. 

Beech (Fagus silvatica), Robenhausen and Steckborn. 

Oak (Quercus sp.), Robenhausen, Schotz, and Steckborn. 

Elm (Ulmus sp.), Greing. 

Maple (Acer sp.), Burgaeschii and Robenhausen. 

Ash (Frasinus excelsior), Fallanden, and Heimenlachen. 


The Bronze Age races of Switzerland added only a few species 
to the list of plants already cultivated in Neolithic times. A 
species of oats (Avena sativa) has been found at Montelier and 
Petersinsel; spelt (Triticum spelta), at Moringen and Petersinsel ; 
and the bean (Vicia faba), at Corcelettes, Montelier, and Peter- 
sinsel. Two other plants, both found at Moringen, were probably 
cultivated: charlock (Sinapis arvensis) and a cabbage (Brassica 
sp.). One finds evidence at Vinelz that use was made of one new 
wild plant, the chestnut (Castanea sativa). 

At least two cultivated plants were added to the list known 
in Switzerland during the Iron Age: the onion (Allium cepa) and 
the turnip (Brassica rapa). 

Agriculture—The domestication of plants goes hand in hand 
with cultivation of the soil. The first tool for cultivating the soil 
was the digging stick; it was supplemented later by spades and 
hoes, and last of all by the plow. Hahn has pointed out that the 
digging stick is an extension of, and substitute for, the finger; 
the spade and hoe are extensions of the hand; and the plow bears 
a like relationship to the foot. He believed that plows were at 
first drawn by women; later the ox and the cow were employed. 

A round-headed race living south and east of the Caspian Sea 


158 HUMAN ORIGINS 


were among the first to give adequate attention to the subject of 
agriculture. This fact enabled them to spread slowly over Europe 
from 4000 to 2000 B.C. 

That maize had been cultivated in the New World long before 
its discovery by Columbus is proved by its differentiation into 
varieties and by the extended area over which it was found—from 
the southern extremity of Chile to the 5oth parallel of north lati- 
tude, and from New England to Arizona. Describing its cultiva- 
tion among the Hurons in 1623-26, Sagard says that they dug 
a round place at every two feet or less and planted nine or ten 
grains of corn which had been previously selected, culled, and 
soaked in water for several days. The same spots for planting 
were used year after year, the earth being turned over by means 
of a wooden spade. The Virginia Indians are said to have en- 
riched their fields with shells and fish; the Indians of the arid 
Southwest had instituted successful irrigation projects. In addi- 
tion to maize, various other plants, including beans, gourds, 
squashes, pumpkins, sweet potatoes, tobacco, and the sunflower, 
were cultivated in the New World prior to its discovery by white 
men. 


COMMERCE 


Civilization is measured by the radius of the circle of man’s 
requirements. Commerce is the medium by which the radius is 
lengthened, and commerce depends upon media of exchange and 
transportation facilities. Paleolithic man lived in a trackless wil- 
derness; his circle of requirements was practically nil, being met 
by the immediate locality in which he happened to be. His needs 
were measured by his ability to meet them; he adapted himself to 
his environment and was no doubt as well satisfied with his lot 
as any of his successors have been with theirs. 

Neolithic man discovered and learned how to make use of 
hitherto unknown natural resources. He tapped virgin beds of 
flint, and flint of the best quality soon came to be the vogue, was 
sought after, and became an article of commerce. He learned that 
it was possible to make a species of stone from clay by tempering 
and firing it. The newly discovered ceramic industry, together 
with the taming of animals and plants, made sedentary life pos- 


THE STONE AGE CULTURE COMPLEX 159 


sible. Thus was ushered in the change whereby man no longer 
had to go after the thing he wanted; on the contrary, it was made 
to come to him. With the habitual transport of materials, routes 
both by land and water were established. 

The exploitation of flint mines on a large scale during the 
Neolithic Period presupposes a considerable amount of traffic in 
flint. Some idea of the extent of Neolithic commerce may be had 
by tracing the distribution of the products of a given mine. Grand- 
Pressigny (Indre-et-Loire) flint affords a good example because 
of its distinguishing color (beeswax). De Saint-Venant, who 
made a special study of the subject, found Pressigny flints as far 
away from the center of dispersal as Brittany, northern France, 
Belgium, Italy, and western Switzerland. | 

The geographic distribution of obsidian is likewise easily traced 
because of its color and its association with volcanic regions; it is 
confined in Europe to limited areas in France (Cantal), Bohemia, 
Hungary, the Greek archipelago, and Italy (vicinity of Naples). 
Neolithic traffic in obsidian is traceable in Italy and the Greek 
archipelago. 

The frequency with which one encounters ornaments and im- 
plements of jade or nephrite in Neolithic stations of Europe can 
be explained only on the ground of its being an object of barter. 
Heinrich Fischer was obviously wrong in supposing all jade and 
jade ornaments found in Europe to be of Asiatic origin. Although 
the occurrence of jade in nature is much more limited geograph- 
ically than the Neolithic distribution of jade objects, G. F. Kunz 
in 1899 found at Jordansmthl (Silesia) a single mass of jade 
large enough to have met the needs of Neolithic man over the 
whole of Europe. Jade in Europe can thus be accounted for with- 
out making a draft on Asia, but commerce is the logical explana- 
tion for its Neolithic dissemination. 

A very important line of evidence bearing on prehistoric com- 
mercial relations is furnished by amber. During the Neolithic 
Period, amber continued to be rare except in the Baltic region. It 
has not been reported from the kitchen middens, but northern 
sepultures dating from the later epochs of the Neolithic have yielded 
many amulets and ornaments of amber. Symbolic axes and ham- 
mers of amber have been found in various northern stations ( Born- 


160 HUMAN ORIGINS 


holm, Vester-Gétland, and Bohuslan). The first Bronze Age mer- 
chants who carried metal wares into the north brought back amber, 
which thereafter became an important article of commerce 
throughout Europe. The introduction of bronze into Scandinavia 
and the general dissemination of amber throughout Europe took 
place from 1200 to 1000 B.C. 


THe HEALING ART 


Disease is almost as old as life itself. Caries, for example, is 
common among fossil vertebrates: according to Renault, it is found 
in Permian fishes that lived twenty million years ago. Pyorrhea 
alveolaris, fracture, callus, and parasitism also date from the Pale- 
ozoic Period. Lesions are found on the bones of dinosaurs, turtles, 
crocodiles and other reptiles of the Mesozoic Period similar to 
those produced in modern times by periostitis, necrosis, arthritis, 
and osteoma. Fossil animal remains from the Tertiary deposits 
also afford evidence of the existence of numerous diseases. 

Our knowledge of prehistorc surgery is limited to operations 
that affected the bony tissue. The osseous remains of Paleolithic 
man thus far brought to light are relatively few in number, hence 
the small chance of discovering traces of Paleolithic surgical oper- 
ations even if these existed. On the other hand, there is abundant 
evidence that Neolithic man practiced surgery with a considerable 
degree of skill and success. : 

The only Neolithic surgical operation of which we have definite 
proof is trepanation. It can be traced without a break from mod- 
ern surgical practice back at least to early Neolithic times and to 
a race closely akin to the Paleolithic hunters of western Europe. 
Its great antiquity is matched also by the boldness which led to its 
inception. The hardihood of the first attempt could scarcely have 
found sufficient basis in a knowledge of cephalic anatomy, and 
yet those who deposited their dead in communal sepultures must 
have been more or less familiar with the human skull. Given, 
however, a great emergency, this slight familiarity might have 
contributed toward a steadiness of nerve not otherwise attainable. 

The first cases might well have been victims of accident or 
violence. This was the view of Prunieres, who supposed that once 


THE STONE AGE CULTURE COMPLEX 161 


a depressed fracture had been successfully relieved, a like opera- 
tion might be tried on those suffering from delirium or convulsions 
not due to violence but with symptoms similar to those caused by 
a depressed fracture. In the opinion of Broca, such a view would 
presuppose physiologic and medical knowledge not within the reach 
of the Neolithic practitioner, whom he believed to have been in- 
spired by superstition rather than by observation. Two of Broca’s 
reasons for this conclusion were (1) what he believed to be the 
complete absence of any vestige of ante-mortem fractures about 
the trepanned areas, and (2) the constant integrity of the fore- 
head, which would not have been respected by fractures. We shall 
see, however, that in so far as Inca trepanation was concerned, 
Broca was mistaken on both these points. The number of excep- 
tions to what Broca believed to be the rule would doubtless be 
larger were it not for the fact that in a majority of traumatic 
cases the signs of fracture would be entirely removed by the 
operation. 

A point in support of Broca’s theory was the presence of 
cranial-bone amulets in French Neolithic sepultures, especially 
those of the Lozére and the Marne. Superstition is rooted in the 
unknown. Mysterious maladies, whose causes were attributed to 
divine or diabolic influences, are those most likely to give birth 
to such a practice as trepanation. Among these maladies epilepsy 
and convulsions of every sort take first rank. The superhuman 
strength of the patient during an attack was proof of the presence 
of an imprisoned spirit. Release this spirit and the malady would 
be cured—hence trepanation. 

The Neolithic operator probably did not distinguish between 
epilepsy and convulsions common to childhood. ‘The failures to 
cure epileptic cases by means of trepanation would be offset by 
the cases of childhood convulsions, which would be outgrown. The 
practice would thus be justified and become fixed. In time special 
virtues might be attributed to crania that had been trephined. The 
aperture through which the spirit escaped would come to possess 
supernatural qualities; from its borders would be (in fact, were) 
cut bone amulets to be worn by those who would escape similar 
maladies (Fig. 324). In time, incomplete trepanation, that 1s, the 
removal of the external table, might be substituted for the more 


162 HUMAN ORIGINS 


serious operation involving the entire thickness of the cranial 
case. 

That flint implements were wholly adequate for the operation 
was demonstrated by Broca, who by means of a Paleolithic chipped 
flint from the cave of Cro-Magnon (Dordogne), trephined the 
skull of a two months’ old dog. The operation, which was by 
the scraping process, lasted about eight minutes; during this time 
the dura mater was laid bare over an area as large as a twenty- 
centime piece. Broca was able also to satisfy himself that scraping 
subjected the outer cerebral membrane to less danger than any 
other trephining process. The dog did not even have a temperature 
following the operation. and the wound healed promptly, this 













SANS 
i ) 





Fic. 324. CRANIAL AMULETS FROM THE NEOLITHIC ARTIFICIAL CAVES OF THE PETIT- 
MORIN VALLEY, MARNE, FRANCE. 


After Déchelette 


despite the fact that the flint was of great antiquity and somewhat 
dulled instead of possessing the keen edge produced by a fresh 
fracture of freshly quarried flint. 

It is not strange that even the best authorities should have 
confounded, for a time at least, cases of prehistoric trephining with 
openings that might have been the direct result of wounds or of 
pathologic conditions. Again, some openings in the cranium are 
known to be congenital. In the latter category belong the abnor- 
mally large parietal foramina and openings due to cerebral hernia, 
but their position and the nature of their margins make them easily 
distinguishable from trepanation. Pathologic openings in the skull 
are produced by intra- or extra-cranial tumors that invade and 
destroy the bony tissue, and by a disease of the bone itself. The 
former need not be confused with trepanation because the margins 
cannot cicatrize. In the latter, although cicatrization is possible, 
the diseased condition of the bone extends beyond the perforation. 


THE STONE AGE CULTURE COMPLEX 163 


Traumatic openings would be the most difficult of all to dis- 
tinguish from trepanation, because there might be complete cica- 
trization of the margins and at the same time complete integrity 
of the adjoining bony tissue. Hence the appearance of a key speci- 
men was necessary in order that the scientific world might grasp 
the fact of prehistoric trephining. 

It remained for a noted American archeologist, E. G. Squier, 
to produce the key specimen. In examining the important collec- 
tion of Senora Zentino of Cuzco, Squier’s attention was attracted 
by a skull from a pre-Columbian Inca cemetery in the Yucay 
Valley, some 38 kilometers (24 miles) east of Cuzco. This skull 
was given by his hostess to Squier, who later submitted it to Broca. 
The latter immediately recognized in the skull a case of trepa- 
nation, for the simple reason that the opening could not have been 
due to any other procedure. 

The aperture is rectangular, and it was produced by means 
of two pairs of parallel incisions, one pair at right angles to the 
other. Since the incisions extended in all directions beyond the 
corners of the opening, this method necessitated the removal of 
relatively much more periosteum than would be required in the 
more complex circular operations. Curiously enough, Broca failed 
to profit fully by the lesson of this case from Peru, for it was 
not until several years later that he recognized the prehistoric 
examples already found in France as actual cases of trepanation. 
Perhaps in no other part of the world was prehistoric trepa- 
nation more in vogue than in Peru. The Yale Peruvian Expedi- 
tions of 1914 and 1915 gathered from caverns in the highlands 
northwest of Cuzco a series of human crania and mummies to 
the number of 298 (fragmentary specimens included). If from 
this total we eliminate the small fragments and the crania of young 
children, there remain 250; out of these, forty-six, or eighteen per 
cent, had undergone at least one trephining operation. But some 
of the skulls were operated on more than once, in one case five 
times (Fig. 325); so that the percentage of operations to the total 
number of skulls would be even greater. 

By a study of the position of the fractures and trephining 
operations, one can make out a good case for the assumption that 
their high percentage marks a period of warfare among the Incas, 


164 HUMAN ORIGINS 


So far as we know, among barbaric as well as civilized races a 
majority of both sexes are right-handed. In combat, therefore, 
the left side of the head would be exposed to greater danger than 
the right. If the fractures and trepanations are found to be pre- 
vailingly on the left side, then their position is not fortuitous but 
controlled rather by the exigencies of combat. | 

It was thought best to set aside all cases of partial trephining 
—those that affected the external table only. We first considered 





Fic. 325. FRONT AND TOP VIEWS OF A TREPHINED INCA CRANIUM FROM PATALLACTA, 
HIGHLANDS OF PERU. 


This skull (of a male) had been trephined five times and in each case the wound had 
healed. Photograph by the author. 


the cases of fracture not followed by an operation but that were 
fatal. Of the twenty in this class, eleven had suffered injury to 
the left side of the head and only three to the right side. The 
wounds of the remaining six were either on the front or back 
of the head, and these might have been fortuitous, although they 
might equally have been due to warfare. But no theory of chance 
could explain away the great preponderance of injuries to the 
left side in the first fourteen cases cited. In one of these there 
was a fracture of the left scapula also. 

The second lot consisted of fractures that were not fatal and 


Theo lONE AGE CULTURE COMPLEX 165 


that apparently were not followed by an operation. Of the 
seven skulls in this group, five had been fractured on the left 
side and only one on the right. In the seventh the wound had 
been on the front. 

In eight cases fractures were followed by operations and death. 
Of these, six were on the left side and only one on the right. In 
the two cases where the victim survived both the fracture and the 
operation, the wound had been inflicted on the left side and on 
the left rear. 

The largest group of all consisted of skulls in which the 
operation might have removed all traces of an antecedent frac- 
ture. In twelve cases out of a total of twenty-one, the operation 
had been on the left side, in eight on the right side, and in one 
on the back of the skull. Seventeen out of the twenty-one had 
survived. 

From a study of these various groups it is obvious that, with 
the possible exception of the last in part, chance had nothing to 
do with the location of the fracture or operations. On the other 
hand, a different situation exists in the list of partial operations, 
that is, where the external table only was removed or where the 
trouble was superficial. Here all parts of the skull were about 
equally affected. They represent either accidental wounds or 
thaumaturgic operations. 

In brief, the burial caves in question represent a period of 
strife in the history of the highlands of Peru, a period which 
tended to develop the use of surgery. In rare instances the knife 
was employed to remove diseased bone. In some twenty-eight 
per cent of the cases the operation was to relieve depressed frac- 
tures. As a rule, however, the operation either obliterated all 
trace of its cause, or else the cause was not of such a nature as 
to affect the osseous system. 

Manouvrier has described an unusual type of Neolithic tre- 
panation in France. The crania bearing marks of the operation 
are not only from a limited area, but rare also from dolmens be- 
longing to the Neolithic Period. The dolmen La Justice at Epone, 
near Mantes (Seine-et-Oise) has been known since 1833 but was 
not opened until 1881. In addition to pottery, stone implements, 
and ornaments, Perrier du Carne obtained portions of about sixty 


166 HUMAN ORIGINS 


skeletons, including twelve crania. Manouvrier observed that 
three of the female crania were marked by curious and similar 
mutilations in the region of the vertex. In every case the cicatrice 
is T-shaped. The antero-posterior branch begins just above the 
anterior curve of the frontal, extends along the sagittal suture, 
and terminates near the obelion, where the transverse branch is 
encountered. The latter descends on either side to a point back 

of the parietal protuberances. 
Zu the scars are evidentally the re- 
a sult of lesions of the scalp made 
during life, and deep enough to 
affect, directly or indirectly, the 
periosteum. 

Searching through the Broca 
collection, Manouvrier found 
three other examples of the 
cicatrice in T, and all three on 
feminine subjects. They came 
: from three dolmens in the neigh- 
A borhood of the dolmen of Epone, 
namely, Vaureéal and Conflans- 
Fic. 326. NEOLITHIC FEMALE CRANIUM Sainte-Honorine (Seine-et-Oise ) 
WITH SINCIPITAL CICATRICE, FROMTHE and Feigneux (Oise). In one of 
Pemmetarstc eerie Ce” these three cases the cicatrice 

Several examples of sincipital cicatrices WAS VETY slight ; in another the 
in the shape of a T have been found on diploé was uncovered by either 


female crania in France. The purpose of 
the operations cannot be ascertained. the wound or the suppuration 


Scale, 4. After Manouvrier. (Fi 
ig. 326). 









ty) 






=== 
SN 
SS 


SSS 






In every instance the lines forming the T were broken at inter- 
vals, giving the appearance of successive operations. The opera- 
tion on the scalp, however, may have been performed at one time 
and in a continuous line without affecting the skull at all points. 
None of the crania presents pathological characters. As to the 
meaning of these marks, Manouvrier suggested that an explanation 
might be found in practices connected with religion, war, penal 
justice, mourning, thereapeutics or coiffure. 

Another link in the chain of evidence furnished by the dolmens, 
and connecting the Neolithic treatment of cephalic ailments with 


THE STONE AGE CULTURE COMPLEX 167 


teachings of the Galenic school, is furnished by a skull from the 
dolmen of Champignolles (Seine-et-Oise). Like all but one or 
two of the seven or eight previously noted, it is that of a female. 
The character of the lesions indicate that they were made in early 
life. In the first place, there is the sincipital T with a medial 
branch 13 centimeters (5.1 inches) long, not perfectly straight but 
continuous. It is narrow, and suggests an incision of the peri- 
osteum rather than a cauterization. The short transverse groove 
terminates at either extremity in an oval pit large enough to hold 
the ball of the thumb. The one on the right actually penetrates 
the skull, forming a perforation 3 to 4 millimeters in diameter 
with sharp margins. Near the latter, and in a line with the trans- 
verse groove, is an extensive lesion, 6 centimeters (2.4 inches) in 
diameter, with irregular, oval contour. The central perforation 
is of the same shape, and fully 3 centimeters (1.2 inches) in 
diameter. In aspect, whatever the intention of the operator may 
have been, it is a veritable trepanation. Of the bony area attacked 
almost one-half was completely destroyed. The perforation is 
surrounded by a zone of practically uniform width, composed 
of the inner compact layer of the skull wall; and beyond this zone 
rises the surrounding rim measured in height by the thickness of 
the external compact layer. The irregular outlines are not such 
as would be produced by cutting, sawing, or scraping. There is 
still another oval cicatrice to be noted, which is sufficient in size 
to lodge the tip of the little finger; it is on the frontal bone 3 
centimeters (1.2 inches) to the right of the medial incision, and 
does not amount to a perforation. That these oval lesions are the 
result of cauterization would be evident even without the support 
of the ancient authors. 

The following is a partial list of localities in France (with ref- 
erences) where examples of Neolithic trephining have been found: 


EXAMPLES OF NEOLITHIC TREPHINING IN FRANCE 


Sepulture near Evreux (Eure). Pére Montfaucon, Antiquité 
expliquée (trans. by David Humphrey), v, 132 (London, 1722). 

Cavern at Nogent-les-Viérges near Creil (Oise). Barbie du Bocage, 
Mém. Soc. roy. des antig. de France, iii, 298-309 (1820). (Artificial 


168 HUMAN ORIGINS 


cave, over two hundred skeletons, one fine example of trephining, 
preserved in Museum of Natural History, Paris.) 

Grottes de la Vallée du Petit-Morin (Marne). De Baye, BSA, 
ad ser., ix, 225-244 (1874); CIA, Brussels, 393 (1872) ; Mat., 2d ser., 
vil, 494 (1872). 

Grotte de ’ Homme-Mort (Lozére). Broca, CIA, Brussels, 182 
(1872) ; Prunieres, AFAS, Bordeaux (1872); Broca, R. d’Anthr., 11, 
Q (1873). 

Dolmen de Sec (Lozére). 

Rock shelter of Duruthy at Sordes (Landes). Lartet and Chap- 
lain-Duparc, Mat., 2d ser., ix, 101-167 (1874). 

Dolmen de Bougon near Niort (Deux-Sevres). 657) angers 
316 (1875). 

Tumulus de Moret-sur-Loing (Seine-et-Marne). Chouquet, BSA, 
Ad ISerL ex, 270. (1S 70) 

Station of Entre-Roche near Angouléme (Charente). Chauvet, 
BSA, edjset. exile io A 

Sepulture de Guerin, 2 kilometers (1.2 miles) from Montereau 
(Seine-et-Marne). Chouquet, BSA, 2d ser., xii, 13 (1877). 

Allée couverte des Mureaux (Seine-et-Oise). Verneau, Anthr., i, 
157 (1890). 

Dolmen de la Justice d’Epone (Seine-et-Oise). Perrier du Carne 
and L. Manouvrier, BSA, 4th ser., vi, 273-297; 4th ser., vi, 357-360 
(1895). 

Dolmen of Menouville near TlIsle d’Adam_ (Seine-et-Oise). 
Manouvrier, BMSA, 5th ser., ii, 601-604 (1902). 

Dolmen de Conflans-Sainte-Honorine (Seine-et-Oise). Manouv- 
rier, REA, vi, 57-58 (1806). 

Dolmen de Vauréal (Seine-et-Oise). Manouvrier, REA, vi, 57-58 
(1896). 

Dolmen de Feigneux (Oise). Manouvrier, REA, vi, 57-58 (1896). 

Dolmen de Champignolles (Seine-et-Oise). Manouvrier, BM SA, 
5th ser., v, 67-73 (1904). 7 

Sepulture of Montigny-sur-Crécy (Aisne). Delvincourt and Bau- 
det, BM SA, 5th ser., vii, 207 (1906). 

Allée couverte de Vaudancourt (Oise). Léon Coutil, Mém. Soc. 
preh. franc., iv, 23 pp. (1915-1919). 

Puits funeraire de Tours-sur-Marne (Marne). In the museum of 
antiquities, Saint-Germain. 

Sepulchral chamber of Belleville at Vendrest (Seine-et-Marne). 
Baudouin, 264 pp., 16 pls. (Paris, 1911). 


THE STONE AGE CULTURE COMPLEX 169 


The sepulture at Vendrest contained 120 skeletons of both 
sexes, adults as well as children. Eight of the skulls had been 
trephined, one of them three times, and the margins of all three 
openings had healed. The operations were performed by means 
of scraping, the method being evidently the same as that employed 
in the highlands of Peru. 


RELIGION 


Paleolithic man has left indubitable records of religious prac- 
tices. The oldest records that have been preserved relate to pro- 
vision for the dead. Mousterian man, whose ideas of art were so 
primitive as to escape detection, took pains to bury his dead. He 
evidently believed in a hereafter, one however that was material, 
since food was buried with the departed, presumably to meet 
material needs. In a hereafter like the present life there would 
be need of tools and weapons; these also were buried with the 
dead. 

The Aurignacian and later races developed the burial rite 
further. They had other ways also of leaving imperishable records 
of religious practices, chief among them being art. Religion is 
older than art and may have served as the fertile soil in which 
art first took root, but as a means of tangible and imperishable 
religious expression, art justly claims first place. 

The Paleolithic hunter, however capable he might have been 
mentally, had neither the time nor the solidarity of intellectual 
environment necessary to solve subtle problems of philosophy. He 
drew no nice distinctions between religion and magic. His God 
was the sum total of the unknown. That portion of his life span 
still to be lived lay in the domain of the unknown. The ruler of 
this domain must help him, would help him, if he could only make 
his needs known. To communicate with this power outside of, 
and beyond, self was a difficult problem without the medium of 
a written language, a problem which was solved only by the birth 
of art. We shall never know what sort of spoken language the 
cave man used nor what formality accompanied his vocal efforts 
at prayer. Fortunately, the means he chose as a substitute for the 
spoken word were not only unmistakably comprehensible appeals 


170 HUMAN ORIGINS 


to the Great Spirit, but also have been handed down in imperish- 
able form to the present-day student of prehistory. 

Paleolithic man was a hunter; he must often have gone hungry 
because game was scarce or big and powerful. Possession of the 
image assured or facilitated capture of the original. An inventory 
of cave art reveals the striking fact that the vast majority of 
examples represent animals difficult to capture or dreaded as beasts 
of prey. Not infrequently the figure is marked by bleeding wounds 
or represented as struck by, or accompanied by, weapons used in 
the chase. 

The troglodyte hunter was too wise to kill the goose that laid 
the golden eggs. Animals, in common with himself, must repro- 
duce. He had not learned to domesticate and in that manner pro- 
vide for increase. Other ways were open; recourse was again 
had to magic in the guise of imagery. Numerous examples of 
male and female might be cited in which the intent of the artist 
is unmistakable, notable among which are the bisons modeled in 
clay at Tuc d’Audoubert (Fig. 148) and the reindeer carved in 
ivory from Bruniquel (Fig. 129). 

It is a fact worthy of note that the dart thrower, so much in 
evidence during the cave-art period, effective in defense or in bring- 
ing down game, should nearly always have been carved in the 
semblance of some animal form. The museum at Saint-Germain 
possesses some fine examples: two, carved in reindeer horn, rep- 
resent the bison, one of the most important food animals; a third, 
carved in ivory, bears the figure of a hyena, one of man’s dread 
enemies; examples from other stations represent the horse (Bruni- 
quel), the wild goat and the grouse (Mas d’Azil). These figures 
had more than an esthetic significance (see Fig. 103). 

If the effigy dart thrower possessed magic power, why not also 
the dart-shaft straightener? There is no doubt that the baton 
served as a shaft straightener and for testing the diameter of the 
shaft throughout its length. It was not practical to ornament the 
dart, so the cave man ornamented the baton instead. The dart 
whose shaft had passed through the hole of a decorated baton 
could not fail of its mark. 

A favorite motive on batons was the horse, one of the chief 
game animals of the time. The baton from Mége at Teyjat has 


THE STONE AGE CULTURE COMPLEX iit 


engraved figures not only of the horse, but also of the hind, swan, 
eel, and three diminutive masked human figures. A baton found in 
the cavern of Montgaudier (Charente) bears the engraving of a 
seal, and one from Placard the head of a fox in the round. One 
of the finest examples of Paleolithic engraving is the baton with the 
figure of a browsing reindeer from the cave of Kesslerloch near 
Thaingen. The head of a hind is engraved on the baton of deer- 
horn from the cave of Valle (Santander). A reindeer is deeply 
incised on the baton from the cavern of Castillo (Santander). 

Sculptured figures of the human female are among the oldest 
known authentic works of art. A majority of these belong to a 
type obviously intended to symbolize fecundity, emphasis being 
placed upon the parts that are necessary in the process of reproduc- 
tion. In realistic art of any age it is not at all surprising that both 
primary and secondary sex characters should find expression, and 
in this respect the Upper Paleolithic age is no exception. In repre- 
sentations of the human form the female takes precedence. This 
might be accounted for, in part at least, by the fact that males were 
probably dominant among the artists. Some of the figures repre- 
sent fine physical types (Fig. 165); in others, certain female 
characters such as fatness, largeness of hips and breasts, etc., were 
so persistently emphasized as to produce a more or less symbolic 
type, recurring at Brassempouy, Laussel, Mas d’Azil, Mentone, 
Lespugue, Mainz and Willendorf (see Figs. 159-164). 

The reproductive organs are indicated only in rare instances, 
such, for example, as the Venus of Brassempouy, the Venus of 
Willendorf, and the Venus impudique and the femme au renne of 
Laugerie-Basse. Their occurrence as independent emblems adds 
strength to the supposition that sex worship existed in Paleolithic 
times. As additional evidence in support of this view there may be 
cited the double phallus of reindeer horn from one of the caves at 
Gorge d’Enfer *® and the phalli from La Madeleine, from the rock 
shelter of Mége at Teyjat, and from Blanchard at Sergeac. Sev- 
eral representations of the vulva, engraved on stone, were also 
found at Blanchard by Didon, and a similar figure was found at 
La Ferrassie by Peyrony and at Montespan by Casteret. One of 


3 Not from Laugerie-Basse as some authors have stated. 


1g HUMAN ORIGINS 


the latest discoveries bearing on this subject is that of engraved 
figures of ithyphallic men followed by women with prominent 
pendant breasts. In the so-called sorcerer (Fig. 151), a mural 
masked human figure in the cavern of Trois-Fréres, the sexual 
organs are emphasized, although scarcely to the point of sensuality. 

There is evidence that masks were used either ceremonially or 
for stalking purposes, perhaps for both. A male figure wearing a 
mask representing the head of a horse has been reported from the 
Magdalenian deposits in the cave of Espélugues at Lourdes; also a 
bearded man with antlers and tail, engraved on schist, not unlike 
the sorcerer of Trois-Fréres. Three engravings on a baton from 
the rock shelter of Mége at Teyjat in which the chamois-head masks 
are seen has been reproduced by Breuil (see Fig. 167). An 
example was also found at Mas d’Azil—a man wearing a bear- 
head mask. Still more remarkable is the sorcerer mentioned above. 
The masked figure has a tail resembling that of the horse and a 
head surmounted by a pair of deer horns. The sorcerer and the 
bisons in an adjoining cavern are symbolic of the supposed efficacy 
of magic. 

An interesting sidelight on Paleolithic customs and beliefs is 
afforded by figures of human hands imprinted on the walls of 
nearly a dozen caves’ of France and Spain. In western Asia 
(Phoenicia) and among the Mohammedans of northern Africa, 
drawings representing the human hand are common and play a role 
in the religious and superstitious life of the people. The custom is 
met with also among the Bushmen and Hottentots. As early as 
1812 Burchell records having seen an old woman of the Bushman 
tribe who had cut two joints from her right little finger and one 
from her left little finger to express grief for the loss of her three 
daughters. Stow states that finger mutilation was almost universal 
among the Bushmen and the Tambukis. He saw one party of 
Bushmen, each of whom had lost the little finger. The operation 
was performed with a stone knife. Its intent was to insure safe 
passage to the next world or a long career of feasting after death. 
The Hottentots are said to cut off the first joint of the little finger 
as a cure for sickness. 

Figures of the human hand were reproduced among the prehis- 
toric Australians by the same technique as that employed by the 


THE STONE AGE CULTURE COMPLEX 173 


Paleolithic hunters of western Europe. Similar figures of the hand 
were left on the cafion walls of Arizona by the ancient Pueblo races. 
According to Catlin, the amputation of the forefinger and the little 
finger of the left hand formed a part of the initiation ceremony of 
the Mandan Indians. George Bird Grinnell states that he was pres- 
ent when the body of a Crow chief killed in battle was brought into 
Camp Lewis (Montana) and saw the mother and a male relative 
each cut off a little finger of the left hand as a mark of the sincerity 






~ S4 
Ry \ 
AEE NYS 
N x 
< 
a. SS 


FiG. 327. SELECTION OF HAND IMPRINTS FROM THE CAVERN OF GARGAS, HAUTES- 
PYRENEES, FRANCE. 





The hand, usually left, of the operator was applied to the cavern wall and coloring 
matter was thrown in such a manner as to adhere to the wall, leaving an imprint of the 
hand when the latter was removed. Both red (hatching oblique to the right) and black 
(hatching oblique to the left) were employed. The finger stubs, showing in all but one of 
these hands are mute witnesses to a sacrificial cult (propitiation), which held sway among 
the Aurignacians even more rigidly than it does to-day in some parts of the primitive 
world. Among the Bushmen a finger joint is sacrificed to express grief at the loss of loved 
ones. According to Catlin, finger amputation formed part of the initiation ceremony of 
the Mandan Indians. After Cartailhac and Breuil. 


of their grief. Grinnell also met an old Ree (northern Cheyenne) 
who explained that the three fingers missing from his left hand 
had been sacrificed to the higher powers in order that he might take 
vengeance on a hated foe. Among the Tlingit, Haida, and Tsim- 
shian tribes of the northwest coast, when several deaths occur sud- 
denly in a family, the first joint of the little finger is sacrificed on 
the occasion of the funeral ceremony as a means of preventing 
further deaths. 

It is significant that the Paleolithic cave artist who left repre- 
sentations of steatopygic, negroid human forms also left on the 
cavern walls imprints of the human hand, in some cases with 


174 HUMAN ORIGINS 


mutilated fingers, especially at Gargas (Fig. 327). The custom, 
therefore, is of ancient date and has had time to spread to distant 
parts of the world, whether from one or from a number of primeval 
centers it would be difficult to say. One may assume that the 
motives that have actuated primitive races of recent time to submit 
to such sacrifices were also potent with the Aurignacians of western 
Europe. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


BucHANAN, John, Brit. Assoc. Report, 80 (1855) (Navigation). 

FoRESTIER, G., La roue, 140 pp. (Nancy, 1900). 

Haun, Eduard, Das Alter der wirtschaftlichen Kultur der Menschhett, 
S8vo (Heidelberg, 1905). 

—— Die Entstehung der Pflugkultur, viiiti92 pp. (Heidelberg, 1909). 

—— Von Hacke zum Pflug, 114 pp., 6 pls. (Leipsig, 1914). 

Hooper, Luther, ‘‘The Loom and Spindle, Past and Present,’’ Smith. 
Report for 1914, 629-678 (Washington, 1915). Canton lectures 
Royal Soc. of Arts, London. 

Houcu, Walter, “ Fire-Making Apparatus in the U. S. National 
Museum,” Ann. Report U. S. Nat. Museum, 1888, 531-587. 
——, ‘Synoptic series of objects in the U. S. National Museum 
illustrating the history of inventions,’ Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 

Ix, 47 pp., 56 pls. (1922). 

Luguet, G. H., “Le réalisme dans l’art paléolithique,” Anthr. xxxiii, 
17-48 (1923). 

Mor tILtet, G. de, Origines de la chasse, de la péche, et de l’agriculture, xii 
+516 pp. (Paris, 1890). 

NIcoLAysEN, N., The Viking Ship Discovered at Gokstad in Norway. 

(Christiania, 1882). 

PAPILLAULT, A., ““Quelques apercus sur les caractéres distinctifs de la 
religion et de la magic,’”’ RA, xxxiii, 171-178 (1923). 

PitTarpD, E. (with L. Reverdin), ‘‘A propos de la domestication des 
animaux dans la période néolithique,”’ Archives Suisses d’anthr. 
génerale, iv, 259-271 (1921). 

SAINT-VENANT, J. de, La cuillére a travers les Gges, 22 pp., 3 pls. 
(Auxerre, 1808). 

SMITH, G. Elliot, ““Ships as Evidence of the Migrations of Early Cul- 
ture,’’ Journ. Manchester Egyptian and Oriental Soc., 63-102 (1916). 

SOERGEL, W., Die Jagd der Vorzeit, 149 pp. (Jena, G. Fischer, 1922). 

WEULE, K., Urgesellschaft und ihre Lebensfirsorge, 8vo, 112 pp. (Stutt- 
gart, 1912-13). 


Mite DE Re XE 
THE BRONZE AGE 


METALLURGY 


Some of the greatest discoveries of all time have been by acci- 
dent. The reduction of metals from their ores evidently belongs 
in this class. Metals are especially prized for their tenacity, duc- 
tility, and fusibility. The first metals to attract the attention of 
prehistoric man were those which sometimes occur in the native 
state, such as copper, gold, silver, and iron. Because of its color 
and its wide distribution in the river gravels and sands, gold was 
in all probability the first metal to come within the ken of early 
man. For Stone Age requirements, however, gold was one of 
the least useful of metals. Moreover, the usual mode of occurrence 
of gold is in small particles. These would have to be assembled 
and converted into lumps through the art of melting, and the art 
of melting required time in which to develop. Even after lumps 
of gold were obtained, either through the process of melting or by 
the discovery of nuggets, and were fashioned by hammering into 
the desired shapes, they would be worthless except for ornaments 
on account of their softness. 

In the native state, copper is not of such wide occurrence as 
gold, but it is found in greater abundance. The chief deposits of 
native copper are in Cornwall (England), Burra Burra (Australia), 
Yunnan (China), the Lake Superior district in North America, 
Bolivia, and Chile. In these districts it was no doubt the first 
metal to be known and utilized. Masses of native copper have 
been worked in the region of Lake Superior since very early times. 

As a metal in nature, silver is of rare occurrence, and it is 
found in lodes or mineral veins, from which it can be obtained 
only through mining. It was practically unknown during the 
early Age of Metals. 


175 


176 HUMAN ORIGINS 


Iron occurs native in two forms, cosmic (meteorites) and tel- 
luric. Both have a limited distribution; in fact, the only known 
masses of undoubted telluric origin are those at Ovifak, Green- 
land, discovered by Nordenskiold. Iron was thus the first metal 
to be utilized by the Eskimo, who fashioned knives from the Ovifak 
masses. 

Copper.—Very little progress toward an Age of Metals could 
be made by the Neolithic races so long as they were dependent 
upon a knowledge of, and the supply of, native metals alone. That 
which finally ushered in the new era was the discovery of the art 
of extracting metals from their ores and of melting and casting 
them. When we consider that the oxide ores occurring on the 
surface of the earth are the most easily reducible of all minerals, 
the wonder is that it took the Stone Age artisans so long to make 
the discovery. 

When by chance a lump of copper carbonate, tinstone, or 
hematite was used as one of the circle of stones surrounding the 
hearth and had become embedded in its embers, the lump would 
almost certainly be reduced to metal. Such a mass of metal would 
attract the attention of primitive man, and experimentation would 
soon disclose its properties of malleability and toughness, qualities 
destined to prove of great utility. The camp fire was in all proba- 
bility the first metallurgical furnace. 

The first step in the development of the furnace would be a 
simple hole formed in the hearth. Gowland states that on his visit 
to Japan in 1872 the evolution of the smelting furnace had only 
reached this stage. The second stage consisted in raising the smelt- 
ing cavity or hearth above the ground and enclosing it within a 
low stone wall; it is represented in very early smelting works at 
Laurion, Greece. 

After reduction, remelting is necessary in the case of copper 
and its alloys. To accomplish this the prehistoric metallurgist made 
a small copy in clay of the cavity of his camp fire, piled fuel over 
it, and thus obtained the molten metal. This clay copy is the proto- 
type of our modern crucible. In the Lake Superior district, axes, 
lance heads, and other forms were fashioned from the native cop- 
per by hammering. The prehistoric Indian tribes of this region 
never learned to melt the native copper and cast it in molds; hence 


THE BRONZE AGE 177 


they had not passed beyond the Stone Age culture at the time of 
the discovery of America by Columbus. 

In many parts of the world, oxidized copper ores are associated 
with ores of tin, arsenic, antimony, nickel, or silver in small 
amounts. The reduction of these ores would result in natural or 
accidental alloys. In England, where copper and tin are associated, 
bronze was produced. In Hungary antimony is associated with 
copper, and the early metal implements are of an alloy not unlike 
bronze. In Egypt and Ireland one finds implements made of a 
natural alloy of copper and arsenic, while in some parts of Ger- 
many the alloy is of copper and nickel. The earliest metal imple- 
ments are often made simply of impure copper. On this account 
certain authors are inclined to recognize an Age of Copper im- 
mediately preceding that of Bronze. A more logical attitude would 
be to consider this initial stage in the use of metals as an early 
phase of the Bronze Age. 

The methods employed by prehistoric man in the manufacture 
of copper and bronze implements are most interesting. The metal 
was not dipped from the furnace in a molten state but was taken 
while in the act of solidifying. The cake thus removed was broken 
up on a stone. The pieces were remelted in dishes of clay, the 
contents of which were poured into molds of stone, clay, or bronze. 
The castings were generally hammered at the edges, which process 
served to give the latter the desired degree of hardness. 

In Europe the earliest production of copper from its ores prob- 
ably took place in Cyprus, where vast piles of ancient slag are 
seen in many localities. Cyprian copper was sought after in 
Homeric times and was sent as tribute to Egypt at a still earlier 
period. In fact, the words copper and Cyprus have a common 
derivation. The mines of southeastern Spain are very old. In 
the Austrian Tyrol, on the Mitterberg Alp, there are prehistoric 
copper mines and heaps of slag associated with stone implements 
and with pottery resembling that from the pile dwellings of Mond- 
see. The mines at Monte Catini and Capanne Vechie in Tuscany 
are well known; there is also an ancient mine at Agordo, in the 
north of Italy near the Tyrolian frontier. 

There are copper mines in Asia that antedate any in Europe. 
Those of the peninsula of Sinai were worked for copper in 


178 HUMAN ORIGINS 


3733 B.C, and earlier. South of Trebizonde and near Erzeruim in 
Armenia, also at Diarbehr in the upper basin of the Tigris, vast 
accumulations of mining and metallurgical refuse and numerous 
excavations mark the sites of a remote but important copper indus- 
try, according to Gowland. Important prehistoric copper mines 
have been reported from Jaipur, Bengal, and the Madras Presi- 
dency, in India. 

It is reasonable to assume that copper was in use in Egypt as 
early as 5000 B.C. Bricks, said to bear the name of King Ur-Nina 
of Chaldea (about 4500 B.C.), were associated with copper 
figurines, which as specimens of metal working are in advance of 
Egyptian metal work of approximately the same date. This would 
seem to indicate that copper was known to the Chaldeans earlier 
than to the Egyptians. In the lowest stratum of the prehistoric city 
at Troy, Schliemann found four knives, one of them gilt and two 
with rivet holes. The stratum dates from 3000 to 2500 B.C. The 
use of copper in Cyprus dates from at least 3000 B.C., for the 
tribute vases paid to Thotmes III (about 1500 B.C.) are of a 
workmanship that required many centuries to develop. Moreover, 
copper for the manufacture of the bronze weapons found at 
Knossos by Evans was probably obtained in Cyprus, and these 
weapons date from about 2500 B.C. According to Chinese annals, 
the nine bronze tripod cauldrons, afterward mentioned in historical 
records, were cast about 2205 B.C. The beginning of a copper 
industry in China therefore might easily date back as far as 
3000 B.C. 

Tin.—Like copper ore, if a lump of tin ore were by chance 
embedded in a camp fire, the result would be metallic tin. In Corn- 
wall, tin ore did not have to be mined; it was abundant and occurred 
at the surface of the ground or at a shallow depth in the river 
gravels. According to Gowland, no cakes of tin produced from the 
earliest smelting of the ore have survived in Cornwall, but shallow 
holes in the ground, partially filled with charcoal and ashes and 
often mixed with fragments of tin, have been discovered near 
ancient workings in the old river gravels. These are remains of 
furnaces of perhaps the earliest period. 

The furnaces were, as a rule, merely narrow, shallow trenches 
in the ground, and the smelting operation was of the simplest kind. 


THE BRONZE AGE 179 


Gowland describes the trench as being lined with clay and filled with 
brushwood, above which small logs of wood were piled. Once the 
logs were fiercely burning and the trench full of glowing embers, 
small quantities of ore were thrown on the fire from time to time. 
More wood and ore were added until the desired amount of tin had 
accumulated in the trench. The fire was then raked away, and the 
tin ladled out into a hole in the ground or into a clay mold near 
the furnace. 

The ancient world obtained most of its tin supply from Corn- 
wall, Spain, and Portugal; the Etruscans extracted tin ore on an ex- 
tensive scale at Campaglia Marittima, near the coast of Tuscany. 
Tin ores occur in lesser deposits in several other parts of Europe; 
the tin veins of Cornwall recur in Brittany; remains of ancient 
workings have been reported from Pyriae, near the mouth of the 
Loire, and at the Villeder (Morbihan). Ancient tin mines have 
been found in Persia at Khorasan. An abundance of tin ore is 
found in the river gravels in Yunnan, China. These tin-bearing 
deposits are near deposits of copper ore and native copper; they 
have been exploited since very early times. | 

Gold.—The Stone Age artificer might well have worked gold 
nuggets into the form of ornaments. The oldest recorded ingot of 
gold that has come to the attention of the author is that found by 
Quibell in a prehistoric grave at El Kab. The oldest mining map 
is depicted on an Egyptian papyrus in the collection at Turin; it 
represents a mining district of the time, either of Seti I (1350 B.C.) 
or of Rameses II (1330 B.C.). The locality covered by the map 
is not definitely determined, but ancient mines are known to be 
scattered over Upper Egypt, Nubia, and the Soudan. These ancient 
mines consist of shallow pits in detritus, shallow trenches along the 
line of a vein, and subterranean workings; Gowland believes the 
first to be the oldest. Trenches, as well as shafts, are sometimes in 
very hard rock, the mining of which was facilitated by the action 
of fire. 

The lumps of gold ore from the mines were crushed by stone 
mauls on a hard stone, or on the country rock, many holes in the 
latter bearing testimony to this operation. The coarse ore was next 
taken to rubbing mills where the particles were reduced to greater 
fineness; the final grinding operation was in the querns. After this 


180 HUMAN ORIGINS 


the product was placed on the smooth inclined surface of the wash- 
ing table. In the washing process the stone particles were carried 
away with the water and the gold remained behind. The final 
washing was in shallow earthen dishes. The gold was then melted 
in crucibles and cast into ingots. 

In Europe the chief auriferous deposits that were available to 
prehistoric man were in Spain, Gaul, Thrace, Dacia, Dalmatia, and 
Ireland. Signs of ancient alluvial mining are abundant in the 
streams of the group of mountains to the north of Salonica. In the 
lower slopes and streams of the Altai Mountains in western Mon- 
golia there have been found evidences of extensive prehistoric min- 
ing operations. 

Silver.—As a native metal, silver has but a limited distribution, 
occurs sparingly, and very rarely in nuggets. For these reasons it 
remained unknown to early man until long after the initial stages 
of the Bronze Age. Silver is invariably present in the common lead 
ores, and it was no doubt obtained from these, or from silver ores 
containing lead. When lead ores are smelted, lead containing dis- 
solved silver is the product. The extraction of silver began as a 
by-product of lead smelting, so that a knowledge of lead came first. 
Galena, the principal lead mineral always contains silver, occurs 
widely, and in vast deposits outcropping at the surface of the 
ground. These outcrops were exploited at an early period. The 
smelting of argentiferous lead ores was very similar to that of 
copper. The silver was then extracted from the lead by the process 
of cupellation. 

Silver was apparently first used in Asia. A silver pin, earring, 
and piece of wire were found in the lowest city (3000 to 2500 B.C.) 
at Troy. At the level of the third city (2500 to 2000 B.C.) a large 
quantity of silver, comprising vases, vessels, goblets, jugs, bars, and 
personal ornaments, was discovered. In China, copper, gold, and 
silver were all used in barter as early as 2400 B.C. The use of 
silver in Italy probably dates from about 2000 B.C., but silver 
objects are of rare occurrence throughout the Bronze Age in 
southern Europe, and the metal was practically unknown in 
northern Europe until the Roman period. In Egypt, silver was not 
much used until a comparatively late date. The early peoples of 
the Mediterranean derived their silver chiefly from Asia Minor, 


THE BRONZE AGE 181 


Macedonia, Thrace, Laurion, Siphnos, Sardinia, Dalmatia, Gaul, 
and Spain. 

Lead.—The physical properties of lead are such that it played 
a very insignificant role during the Ages of Bronze and Iron. Its 
metallurgy has already been touched upon in connection with silver. 
There are but few objects of lead dating from the Bronze Age; 
perhaps the most useful are the net sinkers. Shapeless masses of 
lead were found in the oldest city at Troy (3000 to 2500 B.C.). 
Disks of lead are reported from Mycene. A leaden statuette was 
found in a beehive tomb at Laconia; it is a casting of considerable 
merit and apparently represents the primitive Mycenzan costume. 
At Nagada in Egypt, Petrie found a wooden hawk coated with 
lead which is probably as old as the lead found in the lowest city at 
Troy. 

Iron.—Iron ores are easily reduced to the metallic state, and, 
once reduced, no fusion is necessary in order to fashion the metal 
into implements. That this is not true of copper has been pointed 
out. Moreover, iron ores may be reduced to metal in an ordi- 
nary wood or charcoal fire and without the use of bellows of any 
kind. The temperature required for the reduction of iron is only 
700° to 800° C., whereas that required for copper is about 
1,100° C. Under such conditions it is rather remarkable that the 
reduction of iron ores did not antedate the reduction of copper ores. 
Primitive methods of extracting malleable iron from the ore are 
still practiced in Spain, Finland, India, Borneo, Japan, and Africa. 
In Africa, south of the Sahara, there was no Bronze Age properly 
so-called, the Iron Age succeeding immediately the Neolithic 
Period. Cast-iron dates only from the Middle Ages, the primitive 
furnaces being too low and their blast insufficient for its pro- 
duction. 

Remains of early iron manufacture are found in many localities 
of western Asia. The Assyrians probably obtained some iron from 
the Tiyara Mountains, to the northeast of Nineveh. At Khorsabad, 
in the palace of Sargon, erected about 710 B.C., Victor Place found 
some 160,000 kilograms (17,600 short tons) of iron in the form of 
small bars drawn out at the ends and perforated for convenience in 
handling. Similar forms of iron bars were employed in Roman 
times and even down to the nineteenth century in Sweden and Fin- 


182 HUMAN ORIGINS 


land. The Assyrians probably began to make use of iron as early 
as 2000 to 1500 B.C. 

In northern Persia iron ores were worked extensively near 
Persepolis and in the Karadagh district. Iron mines of southern 
India were worked as early as the tenth century B.C., and in the 
Punjab even earlier, for the use of iron in the making of weapons 
is said to be mentioned in the Rig-Veda. The western provinces 
of China are rich in iron ores. The earliest references to iron in 
Chinese writing do not antedate 1000 B.C.; however, the magnetic 
compass, which implies the use of steel, is said to have been invented 
by the Chinese prior to this date. Basing his statement on recent 
researches in early Chinese history, Brough believes iron to have 
been in use in China as early as 2357 B.C. 

The following list of reputed finds of iron used at an early date 
is adapted from Gowland; it will, no doubt, suffer change with the ° 
progress of discovery: 


DISCOVERIES OF EARLY IRON 


Predynastic times in Egypt—Iron beads. 


TVth dynasty in Egypt, 2900 B.C.—Piece of iron in joint of 
the great pyramid at 
Gizeh. 

Vth dynasty in Egypt, 2750 B.C.—Pieces of a pickax from 
Abusir. 

XIIth dynasty in Egypt, 2000 B.C.—Spear head, Nubia. 
XVIIIth dynasty in Egypt, 1600-1400 B.C.—A sickle, Karnak. 
About 2357 B.C.—Iron used in China (Brough). 

About 2000 B.C.—Iron in second city, Troy. 

About 1500 B.C.—Iron knife, Troy. 

About 1400-1300 B.C.—Achaeans enter Greece with iron swords 
(Ridgeway). 

About 1200 B.C.—Beginning of Iron Age in Crete. 

About 1100 B.C.—Iron implements at Villanova, northern Italy. 

About 1100 B.C.—Use of iron in Etruria. 


About 885-860 B.C.—Ashur-nasir-pal, king of Assyria, brought iron 
from Carchemish. 
About 881 B.C.—Assyria, tribute lists of Moschi. 


THE BRONZE AGE - 183 


About 800 B.C.—Destruction of Damascus, 5,000 talents of iron 
taken. 

About 800 B.C.—Iron swords in central Europe. 

About 800 B.C.—Iron Age in Britain. 

About 700 B.C.—Trading bars in Sargon’s palace. 

About 700 B.C.—Iron weapons, Hallstatt. 


BronzE AGE CHRONOLOGY ? 


As there was an intermediate or transition stage between the 
Paleolithic and the Neolithic Periods, so is there an intermediate 
stage between the Neolithic Period and the Bronze Age. The first 
metals to be employed on an appreciable scale were copper and gold. 
The first objects of metal were of copper unmixed with tin. This 
fact has been recognized in Bronze Age chronology, especially in 
Italy, by calling the initial stage the Eneolithic Epoch. ‘This stage 
is so abundantly represented in southern Europe, Hungary, 
Switzerland, southern France, Czechoslovakia, Saxony, and even 
in Ireland, that some authors have gone a step further by attempting 
to create an Age of Copper. The tendency now is, however, to 
combine the initial copper phase with the first epoch of the Bronze 
Age. 

Thomsen of Copenhagen provided definitely for an Age of 
Bronze in his triple classification of prehistoric times. It was 
reserved for his compatriot and successor Worsaae to make the first 
attempt at a subdivision of the Bronze Age. In 1859 he proposed 
two epochs based on finds made in Scandinavia, northern Germany, 
and the British Isles—an early epoch of inhumation and a later 
epoch in which the dead were generally incinerated. He was as yet 
unacquainted with the initial copper stage. Then followed, in 1875, 
G. de Mortillet’s classification, also into two epochs. De Mortillet’s 
first epoch was the Morgian, named for the station of Les Roseaux 
at Morges on the Lake of Geneva. It was characterized by the first 
appearance of bronze, by objects simply run in molds, by flat axes 
of a type recalling late Neolithic patterns, and by short swords. 











1 With the age of metals is ushered in the period often referred to as proto- 
historic. In Greece the Bronze Age is roughly synchronous with Mycenaean 
culture, in France and England with the early Celtic. 


184 HUMAN ORIGINS 


His second epoch was the Larnaudian, named for the station of 
Larnaud (Jura). It was characterized by objects both molded 
and hammered, by axes with winged poles, by axes with sockets, 
and by long swords. This classification was followed in the two 
editions of Musée Préhistorique (1881 and 1903) by de Mortillet 
and his son Adrien, and is still employed by the latter in his courses 
at the Ecole d’ Anthropologie (Paris). 





Fic, 328. THE PRINCIPAL TYPES OF THE BRONZE AX DURING THE BRONZE AGE. 


No. 1 is a plain flat ax belonging to the first epoch; No. 2 has marginal ridges, second 
epoch; No. 3 has wings, third epoch: No, 4 with wings and No. 5 with end socket, fourth 
epoch. Photograph by Tschumi. 


The chief contributor to Bronze Age chronology was Mon- 
telius of Stockholm, who, beginning in 1885, wrote several im- 
portant monographs on the subject covering practically the whole of 
Europe. The result was a classification of the Bronze Age into five 
epochs. Déchelette, especially well versed in Celtic archeology, 
adapted the classification of Montelius after reducing the number 
of epochs to four. This was done by giving one part of Montelius’s 
fourth epoch to the new third and the other part to the new 


THE BRONZE AGE 185 


fourth epoch. Deéchelette also introduced new types into all four 
epochs. 

The four epochs as accepted by Déchelette and applied to 
western Europe may be characterized as follows (Fig. 328): 


Epocu I (including the copper or Eneolithic phase), ca. 2500 to 
1900 B.C.—Stone implements, especially arrowheads, still abundant; 
arms and weapons of copper or of bronze containing but a small quan- 
tity of tin; flat axes; small triangular poniards with tongue or with 
rivets; toward the end of the epoch, poniards with bronze handles; 
poniards hafted as axes; pins; lozenge-shaped awls; glass tubes in the 





Fic. 329. BRONZE AX WITH WINGS AT THE POLE END FROM MORINGEN, LAKE OF 
BIENNE, SWITZERLAND. 


This ax, which belongs to Epoch IV of the Bronze Age is one of the few examples in 
which the handle has been preserved. Photograph by Tschumi. 


form of a linear series of fused beads; bone worked in the same form; 
beads of gold, bronze, and aitered turquoise (callais) ; crescents of 
gold; caliciform pottery vases ; vases with handles attached to shoulder ; 
inhumation sepultures as a rule; dolmens rare; a few tumull. 

Eprocu II, 1900-1600 B.C.—Bronze rich in tin; axes with plain 
borders (haches a bords droits) only slightly elevated; axes with semi- 
circular blades; triangular poniards with rounded riveted *base; pins 
with spherical perforated heads; open bracelets with pointed ends; 
vases with two to four handles; same mode of burial as in Epoch I. 

Erocu III, 1600-1300 B.C.—Axes with borders slightly raised above 
the plain of each face (haches a bords droits élevés) ; axes with trans- 
verse ridges or shoulders (haches a talons) ; axes with median wings ; 
long, slender poniards; slender nonpistiliform swords; knives with 
bronze handles; pins ribbed at the head; pins with wheel heads; open 
bracelets with obtuse ends; ribbon bracelets terminating in volutes; 


186 HUMAN ORIGINS 


pottery vases with deeply incised patterns; vases with mammae-shaped 
ornamentation; sepulture by inhumation for the most part. 

Epocu IV, 1300-900 B.C.—Axes with wings at the pole end (Fig. 
329) ; axes with end sockets; swords with flat tongue perforated for 
rivets, or with a longitudinal opening; swords with oval pommel; 
swords with antennae at the pommel, the swords being for the most 
part pistiliform; socketed knives and arrow points; kidney-shaped 
bracelets; fibulae with simple and with crenelated arches; double 
razors; bridle bits; pottery vases of many types; incineration dominant. 


HABITATIONS 


The Bronze Age population of western Europe continued to live 
in barbaric simplicity. As was the rule with their Neolithic prede- 
cessors, the principal architectural structures were reserved for the 
dead. Even down to the time of Cesar, the dwellings continued to 
be made of light and perishable materials; brick and tiles were 
unknown. 

There were three classes of villages, (1) terrestial, (2) lacus- 
trine, and (3) those intermediate between the two known in Italy 
as terremare and in Ireland as crannogs. 

Protection not only from wild beasts but also from hostile tribes 
was one of the chief preoccupations of prehistoric man. Villages 
on land were defended by position on a height or by artificial fortifi- ~ 
cations. Where lakes abounded, a very satisfactory means of 
defense was achieved by building the villages on piles over the 
water. This system was particularly well developed in Switzerland 
even during the Neolithic Period. In the broad, flat valley of the 
Po, villages were protected by diverting streams so as completely to 
surround the clusters of dwellings. 

The change from the Stone Age to the Bronze Age took place 
gradually, without the least suggestion of a hiatus. Thus the im- 
portant Neolithic fortified villages continued to be occupied after 
the introduction of bronze. The Camp de Chassey (Saone-et- 
Loire) was inhabited without interruption from the Neolithic 
Period to the Roman Epoch. Caves and rock shelters were also 
inhabited to some extent during the Bronze Age. The rock shelter 
of Bois du Roc in the commune of Vilhonneur (Charente) is one 
of the best dated examples because of the pottery found there. 


THE BRONZE AGE 187 


The lake dwellings of the Bronze Age differ from those of the 
Neolithic Period in being situated farther from the shores of the 
lakes. Instead of being from 40 to go meters (131.3 to 295.5 feet) 
from the shore, they are often situated 100 to 400 meters (328.3 
to 1,313.3 feet) dis- 
tant. They are also 
much larger than the 
Neolithic pile settle- 
ments, although less 
numerous. The geo- 
graphic distribution 
of the Neolithic and 
Bronze Age pile 
dwellings would 
seem to indicate that 
such dwellings origi- 
nated in the east and 
thar the *c ust om 
gradually spread 
westward. The lake 
dwellings of Upper 
Austria and Carniola 
are for the most part 
of Neolithic age, as 
are also those of 

: Fic. 330. TERRAMARA OF CASTELLAZZO DI PAROLETTA, 
eastern Switzerland, COMMUNE OF FONTANELLATO, PARMA, ITALY. 
whereas Bronze Age The village was built on land with a wide moat for pro- 
8 a eae of wate, ay tion ce 
dominant in west- outlet canal, 30 meters wide; D, roadway; F, bridge, 60 

meters long; G, terrace; a, central roadway in line with the 
ica Ht Switzerland and bridge; e, central cross road; }, f, g, h, i, l, other roadways; 
Savoy. c, d, I, wooden bridges; m, p, islets. After Pigorini. 

The most important Bronze Age lake villages of western 
Switzerland are: Chevroux, Concise, Corcelettes, Cortaillod, Auver- 
nier, and Estavayer (the last two especially rich) in Lake Neuchatel ; 
Morigen (or Moringen), Vinelz, and Nidau in Lake Bienne; 
Morges in Lake Geneva; and Wollishofen in Lake Zurich. In the 
bay of Morges there are four pile villages, the two chief ones known 


as La Grande Cité and Les Roseaux. It was Les Roseaux that de 





0 0 100 209 300 400 metri 
ee eee ae ee Be EE ee 


188 HUMAN ORIGINS 


Mortillet chose as the type station for his Morgian Epoch, cor- 
responding to Bronze Age II and III of Montelius and Dechelette. 
The copper stage, or Bronze Age I, is represented at various Swiss 
lake villages, notably at Vinelz (Lake Bienne) and Saint Blaise 
(Lake Neuchatel). The closing epoch (IV) of the Bronze Age is 
well represented at Colombier, Corcelettes, and Morigen. 

All four epochs of the Bronze Age are traceable in the Lake 
dwellings of Italy. The most important are: Peschiera in Lake 
Garda near the source of the Mincio River; Mercurago near Arona; 
and those of Lake Varese. The Bronze Age lake villages of France 
are situated in Lakes Bourget, Annecy, Geneva, and Chalain. 

The terremare of the Po valley resemble lake villages since they 
are built on piles, but with this difference, that they are constructed 
over terra firma and not over water ; they depend on an embankment 
and ditch filled with water for their protection. The terramara type 
of village is especially abundant in the provinces of Modena, 
Parma, and Reggio. They belong to the well developed phases of 
the Bronze Age. 

One of the best examples of the terramara is that of Castellazzo 
di Paroletta in the province of Parma (Fig. 330). The surround- 
ing ditch is 30 meters (98.5 feet) wide and is filled with running 
water. The total area amounted to some 20 hectares (49.4 acres). 
At Castione, another Parmian terramara, Strobel and Pigorini were 
able to distinguish the remains of three villages built successively 
after fires. Land villages built on piles are lacking north of the 
Alps, except in Hungary (Danube Valley), where they belong to 
the Iron Age. 


HoOARDS OR CACHES 


Relics of the Bronze Age are found as isolated specimens and 
in sepultures, but by far the greatest number have been preserved 
to our time in the form of hidden treasure, that is to say, in hoards 
or caches. A single cache may contain but a few specimens; on the 
other hand, it may contain thousands. In 1877, at Bologna during 
a process of sewer construction, an enormous earthen vase was 
brought to light containing 14,800 objects of bronze (including 
fragments )—axes of various types, chisels, knives, gouges, lances, 
sickles, harness trappings, ornaments, etc. 


THE BRONZE AGE 189 


c 
x 
P 2 
% 





Fic. 331. A CACHE OF BRONZE AGE OBJECTS FROM A PEAT BOG AT LANGSTRUP, 
ZEALAND, DENMARK. 


The large plaque with beautiful spiral decoration was fastened to the front of the belt. 
The objects below it are a knife with a handle imitating that of a sword and a pair of spiral 
bracelets. The objects all belonged to a female who lived during the first epoch of the 
Bronze Age in Denmark. Scale, 3. After Neergaard. 


It is not always easy to determine the origin and nature of 
caches. Some are evidently foundry deposits, some are treasures, 
others are presumably votive offerings. The number of caches 
found in France alone is nearly eight hundred. Of these, more than 
half are referable to Bronze Age IV. Caches belonging to Bronze 





Fic. 332. PART OF A CACHE OF ONE HUNDRED AND THIRTY BRONZE OBJECTS FOUND 
IN THE PEAT BOG OF MAGLEBY NEAR SKJELSKOR, ZEALAND, DENMARK. 


The two vases, have slits in the rim for suspension. The object in the right center is a 
bronze decoration for the belt. The remaining objects are a torque, two pairs of brace- 
lets, a chisel, and two axes with end sockets. All belong to the fourth epoch of the Bronze 
Age. After C. Neergaard. 


THE BRONZE AGE 191 


Age I are very rare. The oldest caches, representing epochs, I, II, 
and III, are grouped largely in the valley of the Gironde and along 
the Atlantic littoral. Déchelette concludes that bronze reached 
France by way of the Atlantic and spread northward and eastward, 
a second route of entry being by way of the Danube and Switzer- 
land. 

The peat bogs of Denmark have yielded some remarkable caches 
of Bronze Age objects. A good example dating ‘from the first 
epoch of the Bronze Age was found at Langstrup (Zealand). The 
principal objects found there had to do with the apparel and per- 


=~ 


Tite 
rH 
= 8 
tay 
] hb! 
Oy 
hi ) 
a 
i 





FiG. 333. UNIVALVE STONE MOLDS FOR CASTING THREE AXES AND A KNIFE. 


Scale, ca.}. After Thurnam. 


sonal adornment of the female. The plaque for the belt is par- 
ticularly large and beautifully ornamented, and must have been a 
prominent feature of the female outfit. The spiral ornamentation 
on the plaque is in keeping with the spiral bracelets; both throw 
light on the extent to which the spiral motive was developed and 
appreciated during the early part of the Bronze Age (Fig. 331). 
Another interesting cache of one hundred and thirty bronze 
objects was found in the peat bog of Magleby near Skjelskor 
(Zealand). Among the more important pieces there should be 
mentioned decorated vases with slits for suspension near the rim, 
belt plaques, torques, bracelets, chisels, and axes. This cache 
belongs to the fourth epoch of the Bronze Age (Fig. 332). 


192 HUMAN ORIGINS 


THE CASTING OF BRONZE 


The first molds employed in the Bronze Age were of stone and 
for the most part consisted of but a single valve (Fig. 333). A 
flat stone served to cover the cavity receiving the molten metal; the 
canal through which the molten metal is poured into the cavity of a 
bivalve mold is unnecessary. Examples of the univalve type were 
found by the Siret brothers in the region of El Argar, Spain; they 
have also been found 
in France, Ireland, 
Scotland, Sardinia, 
Troy, and by Mills in 
the mounds of Ohio. 

Beginning with 
the second epoch of 
the Bronze Age 
molds multiply. To 
stone molds are added 
those of bronze and 
Fic. 334. BIVALVE STONE MOLD FOR CASTING SAWS, of pottery. Approxi- 

FROM VIDTSKOFLE, SCANIA. mate 1 y half of the 
In this mold four bronze saws could-be cast at one time. 

Scale, 3. After Montelius. known molds were 
for the casting of 
bronze axes of various types, especially those with shoulder (talon) 
and those with wings or with socket; molds for pins, bracelets, 
lances, knives, hammers, saws (Fig. 334), money, chisels, buttons, 
swords, and clasps are of much less frequent occurrence. In the 
museum at Lausanne there are fragments of hollow bronze bracelets 
that had been hammered into knives as a means of economizing to 

the greatest possible extent in the use of so important an alloy. 

Many molds were found at Auvernier and Moringen, leaving 
no doubt as to the local manufacture of bronze objects. Bivalve 
molds of bronze served in the manufacture of wax models, which 
in turn could be surrounded by a clay paste. By melting the wax a 
second mold was obtained, in which molten bronze was poured. 
Molds dating from the Bronze Age have been found in practically 
all countries of Europe, testifying to a wide dissemination of the 
knowledge of casting. 























































































































THE BRONZE AGE 193 


Crucibles of stone and pottery have been found, but they are of 
much rarer occurrence than molds. This is true also of bellows 
tubes of clay. Ingots, generally lenticular in shape, are met with 
on foundry sites and elsewhere. 

Throughout the Bronze Age, soldering was practically an un- 
known art. The artificers of the time were content to construct 
their vessels, helmets, belts, and cuirasses by a system of riveting, 
the conical heads of the rivets contributing at the same time to the 
ornamentation of the 
product. Relief orna- 
ments on cast objects of 
bronze were generally 
traced on the mold and 
retouched after the cast- 
ing process was finished. 
The metal workers of the 
Bronze Age were masters 
in the art of engraving. 
Gravers of bronze and 
flint were employed. 





































































































WEAPONS 


The principal offensive 
arms of the Bronze Age 
were the poniard and 
forms developed from it, py. 335. BRONZE HALBERDS OF EPOCH IV OF THE 


such as the sword and BRONZE AGE. 


lance. The sword is along The one on the left is from Trieplatz, Brandenburg; 
é © the one on the right from Stubbendorf, Mecklenburg, 
poniard, and the lance a Germany. Scale: at the left, 75; at the right, ca. 


poniard at the end of a ee re 

shaft. The poniard was sometimes hafted like an ax to form the 
so-called halberd (hache-poignard), one of the characteristic types 
of the first epoch of the Bronze Age (Fig. 335). 

The evolution of the sword during the last three epochs of the 
Bronze Age forms an interesting subject for study. The swords 
of the second and third epochs were preeminently weapons for 
sticking or stabbing. With the fourth epoch the blade became 
pistiliform in shape and was used for cutting as well as stabbing 








Fic. 336. BRONZE SWORDS FROM THE BRITISH ISLES. 


Swords of this type (cut and thrust’ were developed during Bronze Age IV. Photo- 
graph from the British Museum. 


THE BRONZE AGE 195 


(Fig. 336). European swords almost without exception are two- 
edged. The bronze sword with but a single edge is practically 
confined to Assyria, Palestine, and Egypt. 

Lance heads were widely employed during the Bronze Age 
(Fig. 337). There are two distinct types, those attached to the 
shaft by means of a tongue and those provided with a socket into 
which the shaft fits. The first mentioned dates from the beginning 
of the Bronze Age. The transition to the socket type occurred dur- 
ing the second epoch; this type was in general use during the third 
and fourth epochs of the Bronze Age. The Mycenzean warriors 
carried lances with socketed heads the workmanship of which ex- 
celled that seen in western Europe. Some eastern lance heads 
dating from the close of the Bronze Age and the beginning of the 
Iron Age are veritable works of art; they are extremely elongated, 
attaining a maximum length of 72 centimeters (28.3 inches). 

Bronze arrowheads are not of so frequent occurrence as might 
be expected. This is no doubt in part due to the great esteem in 
which the flint arrowhead was still held; in fact, some of the finest 
known flint arrowheads date from the Bronze Age. Bronze arrow- 
heads, like the lance heads, were for the most part attached to the 
shaft by means of a tongue or a socket. Archers’ cuffs or fenders 
made of bone, stone, or pottery are not infrequently met with, not 
only during the Neolithic Period, but also in deposits dating from 
the first epoch of the Bronze Age. A different method of protec- 
tion seems to have been adopted by the archers of the second and 
later epochs, as these plaquettes no longer occur; they are supposed 
to have been replaced by a sort of leather gauntlet, perhaps similar 
to those represented on certain figurines of archers discovered in 
Sardinia. 

Defensive armor was developed to a considerable degree during 
the Bronze Age. The bronze helmet does not appear until the 
fourth epoch. During the first three epochs head protection was 
probably limited to a simple leather cap; it will be recalled that the 
swords of these epochs were suited primarily to purposes of thrust- 
ing or stabbing. During the fourth epoch the sword blade was 
lengthened and took on a pistiliform shape; it was perfectly adapted 
for purposes of cutting or slashing. To meet this new danger to 
the head, bronze helmets were invented; many of these have been 











Fic. 337. PART OF A BRONZE AGE CACHE OR HOARD FOUND AT DOWRIS, IRELAND. 


The objects are a bell, two lance heads, three swords, and two trumpets. Photograph 
from the British Museum. 


THE BRONZE AGE 197 


recovered. Besides, we have the supplementary evidence of figur- 
ines wearing armored headgear of this kind. 

Bronze cuirasses did not appear until the close of the Bronze 
Age. Previous to this, cuirasses of leather, fortified perhaps by a 
trimming of wild-boar teeth, were in use. The bronze shield is 
confined practically to the British Isles and Scandinavia (Fig. 338). 
One of the best known examples is the round shield in the Stock- 
holm museum found at Nackhalle, near Varberg, Halland. The 
gold poitrel mounted on copper, reproduced in Figure 339, served 





Fic. 338. BRONZE AGE SHIELDS FROM THE BRITISH ISLES. 


The one on the left, with four zones of bosses, is from the Thames; the other from Wales. 
Photograph from the British Museum. 


as armor fora pony. It was found in 1833, in association with the 
bones of a man, in a cist covered by several hundred loads of pebbles 
and other stones forming a cairn at Mold (Flintshire); it dates 
from the close of the Bronze Age. 

Most of the Bronze Age shields were made of wood, leather, 
and other perishable materials. Some of these were presumably 
provided with a bronze umbone, judging from discoveries made at 
Auvernier and other lake villages. 

In this connection, because of its probable use in war, the bronze 
trumpet should be mentioned. That music serves a variety of uses 
not associated with war, however, should not be lost sight of; it 
plays just as important a role in religion and ceremony, also as an 


198 HUMAN ORIGINS 


independent art. That it had already reached a relatively high 
degree of development in the Bronze Age, no better testimony is 
needed than the structure and capabilities of the remarkable bronze 
trumpets found in a Danish peat bog and now preserved in the 
Copenhagen museum (lig. 340). Trumpets belong to the close of 
the Bronze Age. 





Fic. 339. LATE BRONZE AGE GOLD POITREL FROM A CAIRN AT MOLD, FLINTSHIRE, 
WALES. 


This piece of armor was made to protect the breast of a horse. Bronze Age IV. 
Photograph from the British Museum. 


TooLs AND UTENSILS 


An inventory of Bronze Age objects points to a varied industry. 
The ax leads the list. The stages in its evolution are seen in the 
five principal types. The flat axes had for their prototype the thin- 
poled flint axes of the late Neolithic Period. They belong to the 
first epoch of Bronze. The development of marginal ridges began 
in the second epoch and continued to develop throughout the third 
epoch (axes with plain borders). Before the close of the third 
epoch, there likewise developed a transverse ridge about midway 
between the edge and the end of the pole. Before the close of this 
epoch, the marginal ridges are transformed into wings that almost 
meet at a median point (ax with wings). Beginning with the 
fourth epoch, the wings are shifted to a place near the end of the 
pole. The next step, taken before the end of the fourth epoch, 


THE BRONZE AGE 199 


leads to the ax with end socket (see Fig. 328, No. 5). Axes are for 
the most part without ornamentation. There was an evolution of 
the adz along similar lines. 

Knives dating from the first and second epochs of the Bronze 
Age are rare; they occur much more frequently in deposits of the 
third and fourth epochs. ‘Three 
types are easily distinguishable: 
those attached to the handle by 
means of a tongue (couteaur a 
languette and @ soie), those with 
socket for hafting, and finally 
knives in which handles and 
blades are cast in one piece. The 
last two types are practically 
Pemeted to the fourth epoch. 
Knives differ from poniards in 
that the edge is confined to a 
single margin. 

The bronze razor is as distinct 
in type from the bronze knife as 
is the steel razor from the steel 
knife. It is worthy of note that 
one form of the bronze razor is 
not unlike the modern steel 
razor. The practice of shaving , 
Was already established in pre- Fic. 340. BRONZE AGE TRUMPET FOUND 
Mycenzan times by the use of IN A PEAT BOG NEAR COPENHAGEN. 
emerge ec) Phe peculiar’ ,. sts 4 Scandinavian type of trumpet; 


ts _ fourteen of the twenty-three which have 
mode of fracture of obsidian is been discovered in the peat bogs of Den- 


such as to make the edge of a flake ee eee Ree pages Spies es 

especially effective as a razor; this 

is set forth at length in an article published by the author in 1900.’ 
In some respects the sickle is more closely related to the knife 

than is the razor. The sickle is simply a hooked knife; the attach- 

ment of the blade to the handle is generally by means of either a 


tongue or a socket. Bronze sickles appear beginning only with the 


























2 American Anthropologist, N. S., Vol. Il, pp. 417-421. 


200 HUMAN ORIGINS 


second epoch. During the first epoch tillers of the soil were 
limited to simple flint blades for purposes of cutting their grain. 
Use was made also of wooden sickles armed with toothed blades of 
flint. 

Recurved and barbed fishhooks abound during the Bronze Age. 
Several have been found in the Bronze Age stations of Lake 
Varese, northern Italy; they are also 
abundant in Switzerland. In some, the 
base is sharply recurved to form a ring 
in which the cord was fastened; in others, 
a depression, either single or in series, 
answers the purpose. Finally there should 
be mentioned the bronze harpoons from 
the station of Peschiera in the Lake of 
Garda, belonging to the transition from 
the Bronze Age to that of Iron. 


ARTICLES OF THE TOILET AND PERSONAL 
ADORNMENT 


Our knowledge of male and female 
attire during the Bronze Age is based 
largely on garments found in Scandina- 
ai *S vian oak coffins, especially from Jutland 
Fic. 341. Mare costume and Schleswig, and dating from the first 
PRS pee BRONZE ~—_ epoch of the Age. Men wore on the head 

Aerie a round and rather high cap. The body 

was wrapped in a four-cornered piece of 

cloth which reached from the armpits to the knees. The upper 
corners ended in bands or tips to which leather thongs were sewn; 
these probably passed over the shoulders. A woven band or leather 
belt passed round the waist and was fastened in front with a buckle. 
An oval mantle covered the otherwise naked shoulders and arms. It 
reached to the knees and was wide enough to permit of being easily 
drawn together in front and held by means of fibulae (Fig. 341). If 
the climate was then as rigorous as now, this must have been a rather 
airy costume. It is possible that skins were worn in winter, but we 
have no direct proof of it. These garments have the same weave 





THE BRONZE AGE 201 


as the cloth worn by the Scots peasantry of to-day. Complete male 
costumes have been found in five different localities (Jutland) ; the 
weave, the cut, and the sewing are the same in all. 

The female costume of the time is well represented by a find in 
an oak coffin from a tumulus in Borum-Eshoi, near Aarhus (Jut- 
land). The headdress consisted of a fine and artistically woven 
net worn low on the back of the head 
and supported by a string which passed 
just above the forehead. The cloth 
jacket was made of a single piece, the 
neck-hole being a simple straight slit. 
The sleeves were cut bias and reached 
only to the elbows, so that the forearm, 
where ornaments were generally worn, 
Weaswiett, bare. [he margins were 
finished in buttonhole stitches, excepting 
the lower border, where two strips of 
cloth were added (Fig. 342). 

It would be difficult to say whether 
the skirt or petticoat (both of wool) 
was fastened outside the jacket; it prob- 
ably was, so as to hide the unattractive 
lower border of the jacket. The skirt 
was made of a single piece of cloth, with 
the selvage at the top and bottom, and 
hung in loose folds from the waist, 
reaching the feet. Two woven belts Fic. 342. FEMALE COSTUME 
ending in artistic tassels were found OF THE BRONZE AGE. 
with the clothing. The cloth was usually bese) Bove eapmentspwete 


; : : found in an oak coffin in a 
dark brown to black, which indicates tumulus at Borum  Eschdi, 


that the art of dyeing wool was yh Aerie ome pee aa 
known. 

The principal ornaments worn by the women were a bronze 
band about the neck, a great bronze buckle on the belt (formerly 
supposed to be the central plate of a shield), spiral bracelets, a 
fibula, combs, and finger rings. To attempt to describe the various 
small tools and utensils of the Bronze Age would be to presume 


on the patience of the reader, but we may be permitted to give some 





202 HUMAN ORIGINS 


space to articles of adornment. Among these, bracelets were an 
important factor, especially beginning with the second epoch of the 
Age (Fig. 343). The wearer was not always content with a single 
example. In the Cave of Meyrannes (Gard) as many as six or 
eight bracelets were found on a single skeleton. The types are 
varied; most of them are open, and many are beautifully incised. 
Two very important finds of stone bracelets dating from the Bronze 
Age have been recorded, both in 
Allier. The material employed was 
a local schist. Bronze Age sepul- 
tures have yielded anklets. A ham- 
mered and richly ornamented bronze 
anklet was found on each tibia of 
a warrior whose skeleton was dis- 
covered in a sandpit at Champigny 
(Aube) in 1879. The anklets ter- 
minated at both ends in a grand 
spiral of twelve turns. 

Torques, or solid metallic collars, 
appeared as early as the beginning 
of the Bronze Age. The metal is 
P . : - ~=6either plain or twisted, sometimes 
Fic. 343. MIppLE BRONZE AGE with the ends recurved. Bronze Age 

GOLD BRACELETS From Bor necklaces usually consistedsanss am 
Originals in the National Museum = 
dt Prague. Photograph by J. Schra- Of amber, bronze; tirqueisemams ase 
nil. strung on a thread of wool. 

Finger rings were not so common as were rings of larger dimen- 
sions. The latter were evidently sometimes strung on a metal wire. 
Their relatively great frequency leads quite logically also to the 
assumption that they were employed as a medium of exchange. 
Chains formed an important ornamental element and were no doubt 
widely used as belts, series of pendants adding to their effectiveness. 
Scandinavia excelled in workmanship of this kind. 

Little need be said concerning needles of bronze. The eye was 
placed either near the summit or nearly midway. Pins occur in 
much greater number and variety. They are found in sepultures 
of both sexes but predominate in sepultures of the femda@fe. They 
vary much in size, the largest ones being used in the female coiffure 








THE BRONZE AGE 203 


and to fasten garments about the neck and shoulders. The use of 
pins was much more general in central than in western Europe 
during the first two epochs of the Bronze Age. The form of the 
pinhead serves largely as a basis of classification. The wheel- 
shaped and spheroidal heads were common during the third and 





12 


FIG. 344. VARIOUS TYPES OF BRONZE AGE SAFETY PINS OR FIBULAE. 


Nos. I, 2, and 3 are from Greece; Nos. 4, 5, 6, from Italy; No. 8, from Germany; Nos. 
4, 9, 13, from France; Nos. 10, 11, from Sicily; and Nos. 12, 14, from Switzerland. Scale. 
No. i, ca. g; Nos. 10, 11, ca. 3; No. 12, ca. 3; the rest ca. . 


fourth epochs. Frequently the heads end in the form of a 
shepherd’s crook or in a simple ring. There is also an attractive 
series of so-called vasiform heads. 

The evolution of the Bronze Age fibula or safety pin is an 
interesting subject for study (Fig. 344). One of the ancient types 
is still faithfully followed in the modern safety pin. The elements 
that go to make up a fibula are the arch or bow, the spring (uni- 
lateral or bilateral), and the pin. At the end of the bow opposite 


204 HUMAN ORIGINS 


the spring is the clasp, which serves as a protection for both pin 
and wearer. There is also a primitive early Scandinavian type in 
two pieces, the pin being separate from the bow (dating from 
Bronze IT). 

The terremare of Italy have yielded early types of the fibula 
dating from the Mycenzean Epoch II. These have a simple bow, 
plain or twisted, and a bow the body of which is flattened or leaf- 
shaped (a later type than the preceding). The fibula did not appear 
in Gaul till the beginning of the fourth epoch of the Bronze Age. 
By the close of the Bronze Age four types are recognizable in 
western Europe, the fiddle bow, the highly arched bow, the ribbed 
bow, and the serpentiform bow. 

The toilet is a relatively ancient institution. As far back as 
the early Neolithic Period, use was made of bone combs, and it is 
probable that other material might have been employed in comb 
manufacture. Combs, not only of bronze, but also of bone, horn, 
ivory, and wood were in use during the Bronze Age. They are 
usually small and with but a single row of teeth. Bronze tweezers 
are often found associated with combs. It is safe, therefore, to as- 
sume that at least one of their uses was to remove superfluous hair. 
The mirror during the Bronze Age seems to have been unknown in 
Europe with the exception of Greece and Crete. The earliest mir- 
rors discovered in France date from the second epoch of the Iron 
Age. 

Before leaving the subject of personal adornment, some con- 
sideration should be given to the role played by metals other than 
bronze and by glass. Since gold was undoubtedly one of the first 
metals to attract man’s attention, its abundance, especially during 
the first epoch of the Bronze Age, is by no means surprising. The 
principal sources of gold were Ireland, the Iberian peninsula, and 
Transylvania. The metal was, as it still is, well adapted for use in 
articles of personal adornment, such as beads, bracelets, collars, 
crescents, earrings, spiral rings, torques, etc. The spirals were 
doubtless employed in dressing the hair. Torques with the ends 
recurved were the fashion. 

Gold, as well as silver, was also employed as an ornament for 
tools, utensils, and weapons. According to the /liad, the socket of 
Hector’s lance was incrusted with gold. Ceremonial vases and 


THE BRONZE AGE 205 


utensils were often made wholly of gold or silver. Vases of gold 
have been extracted from Scandinavian peat bogs, and they occur 
less frequently in France. Gold plating was known to metal 
workers of the Bronze Age, especially in Scandinavia, Spain, Italy, 
and the Near East. 

Silver and lead were employed to some extent from the begin- 
ning of the Bronze Age. Sardinia, as well as Spain, possesses an 
abundance of lead ore. Socketed axes of lead, evidently votive in 
character, have been found in England, France, Sweden, and Italy. 

The making of glass is an Egyptian invention. The oldest 
examples date from the first dynasties. From Egypt the use of 
glass spread to other Mediterranean countries, reaching Spain and 
even the British Isles as early as the first epoch of the Bronze Age. 
Beads of glass and tubes representing a series of glass beads have 
been reported from Spain by the Siret brothers and from England 
by Sir John Evans. In each case the paste was similar, opaque and 
of a bluish or greenish color. 


POTTERY 


The ceramic art, since its inception in Neolithic times, has played 
a beneficent and important role. The Bronze Age potters of 
western Europe registered improvements over the work of their 
predecessors, but they remained to the last ignorant of the potter’s 
wheel. In the eastern Mediterranean region, however, products of 
the wheel may be dated as far back as the end of the primitive 
Minoan Epoch (about 2300 B.C.). 

In western Europe certain fairly well defined Bronze Age 
ceramic types are distinguishable (Fig. 345). An early type, well 
represented in Brittany, has four vertically placed handles (some- 
times reduced to two). Most of these vases are unornamented, 
but some bear incised herringbone and other simple patterns. Dur- 
ing the second and third epochs, a new technique, characteristic 
of the Bronze Age but derived from earlier models, appeared. The 
new feature consisted rather in the greater depth to which the in- 
cised patterns penetrated; these patterns were sometimes stamped 
in. Pottery fragments with deeply incised or stamped patterns have 
been found in many parts of France, being especially abundant at 





FIG. 345. BRONZE AGE SEPULCHRAL POTTERY FROM THE BRITISH ISLES. 


The pieces in the upper row are beakers. Those in the next two rows are food vessels 
which succeeded the taller and better made beakers and are found in considerable numbers 
in Ireland as well asin Britain. The majority occur with unburnt bodies in round barrows. 
The pieces in the bottom row are cinerary urns which were developed somewhat later as a 
class than the beakers and food vessels. Their appearance was foreshadowed, however, 
by the two on the right in the next row above. Photograph from the British Museum. 


THE BRONZE AGE 207 


Bois-du-Roc (Charente). Fluted and mammillated patterns appear 
in the third epoch, the latter occurring abundantly in Alsace, 
Bavaria, Silesia, and neighboring regions. 

The pottery of the fourth epoch is especially well represented 
in collections from the Swiss and French lake villages. The pile 
dwellers made use of enormous vessels for storing supplies; some 
of these containers measured a meter (39.4 inches) in diameter. 
The paste was coarse and blackish to red in color. The series of 
smaller vases from the pile villages present a variety of forms, the 
dominant decorative motive consisting of a series of horizontal 
grooves. The presence of perforated vessels points to a knowledge 
of cheese making. A very common ceramic product of the Bronze 
Age is the spindle whorl. 

One of the curious and interesting ceramic products of the 
fourth epoch is what Déchelette considers to be the nursing bottle, 
a vessel with circular aperture for filling, but with a horizontally 
elongate, ovoid body. One extremity of the body is provided with 
a perforation through which the vessel may be emptied. The bot- 
tom is either plain or provided with four short legs. 


COMMERCE 


The lengthening of the radius of the circle of man’s needs 
received a wonderful impetus with the discovery of metals. These 
in themselves not only became an article of commerce, but also soon 
served as a means of facilitating commerce in products of every 
known kind. The relics found in Bronze Age deposits testify to a 
wide use of pack and draft animals. The appearance of the wheel 
as an ornament, and with objects of a votive or ceremonial charac- 
ter, leads to the conclusion that it likewise served other and more 
practical purposes. 

The frequency with which votive ships and votive chariots are 
met with during the Bronze Age is particularly impressive. The 
ship and the wheeled land vehicle took the burden from man’s back 
and gave rest to his feet. There is something symbolic about the 
wheel; it is shaped like the sun, that source of heat, light, power, 
and even life, as well as the embodiment of motion, since it travels 
far by night and by day and is never tired. No wonder that even 


208 HUMAN ORIGINS 


as early as the Bronze Age we find the Cult of the Sun associated 
with the wheel and the horse. 

If the sun had his chariot, he likewise had his boat, by which he 
traveled at night in order to be at his accustomed place at dawn. 
Among Scandinavian petroglyphs there are many which represent 
the association of the sun’s disk with barks (see Fig. 322). 

Another great aid to commerce during the Bronze Age was a 
medium of exchange, usually in the form of metal rings or of axes. 





Fic. 346. BRONZE AGE BRIDLE BITS OF BRONZE AND OF BONE AND HORN FROM THE 
PILE VILLAGE OF CORCELETTES, LAKE NEUCHATEL, SWITZERLAND. 


Photograph by Tschumi. 


Tin, without which there could have been no Bronze Age, occurs 
in nature in only a comparatively few localities. Yet its dissemina- 
tion in foundry sites all over Europe not long after the discovery 
of its value is a well established fact. There is ample evidence of a 
considerable traffic in copper ingots among countries bordering on 
the Mediterranean. Other highly localized products, such as amber 
and turquoise, found their way to various parts of Europe even 
during the Neolithic Period, so that by the beginning of the Bronze 
Age Europe was already a unit, industrially speaking. 


THE BRONZE AGE 209 


Salt was another product in which there was extensive barter 
during the Bronze Age. Localities rich in salt also became ware- 
house centers for food products habitually preserved in salt. A 
bronze ax of the winged type and several handles of wood for axes 
of the same type were found in salt mines near Salzburg, Austria. 

Bronze Age traffic in finished products such as tools, weapons, 
ornaments, etc., was by no means negligible. Italian and Scan- 
dinavian types are found in central and western Europe; a typical 
Hungarian bronze sword was found in the department of Ain 
(France) ; Scandinavian fibulae and bronze vases are encountered 
from time to time in Swiss pile villages. 

- That Bronze Age culture could not have originated independ- 
ently in the north is clear from the fact that the north possessed 
neither copper nor tin; hence, the culture was an imported one. No 
one now believes it to have come from Russia. Muller and Mon- 
telius do not believe it could have come from western Europe 
(England, France, or Spain) ; according to them, tin was not mined 
in Cornwall at so early a period. The importation came through 
commercial relations with the south, not by an invasion of a whole 
people, but by the introduction of southern wares into the north. 
The Stone Age graves of the North contain the remains of the 
ancestors of the present Scandinavian population, as shown by 
authorities in physical anthropology; moreover, the graves of the 
first epoch of the Bronze Age are precisely like those of the last 
epoch of the Stone Age. 

Evidences of an extensive and early traffic in amber have been 
known to historians for many years. Alexander von Humboldt 
mentioned it (1847), but he had no idea that it reached back to 
1200 B.C. and was the direct cause of the early development of 
civilization in the north. Nilsson was the first (1862) to pronounce 
in favor of this view; he was also impressed by the similarity of 
the northern Bronze Age culture to that of the south, and attempted 
to explain it by supposing that southern Scandinavia had been colo- 
nized by the seafaring Phoenicians, which, however, was not the 
case, 

The magnetic character of amber was noticed by Thales of 
Miletus as early as 600 B.C. and also by the naturalists of the 
fourth century B.C., Plato, Aristotle, and Theophrastus. IJsodorus 


210 HUMAN ORIGINS 


Siculus, Strabo, and other writers mention this quality, but never 
refer to amber as costly or as used for ornament. Virgil and Ovid 
speak of it as material for ornament. According to Pliny, the use 
of amber in the manufacture of art objects was quite general. 
Amber was then the mode; it was attractive in color and was used 
as a means of healing. It was used during the Mycenzan period 
in Greece, as Schliemann found four hundred amber beads while 
excavating the Acropolis at Mycenae. These were tested and found 





Fic. 347. AMBER NECKLACE FROM A BRONZE AGE BARROW AT LAKE, WILTSHIRE, 
ENGLAND. 


Scale, ca. 1. After Thurnam. 

to be amber from Prussia or Jutland. Amber was also found at 
many other sites in Greece belonging to a period equally remote. 

The two great sources of supply were (and still are) Jutland 
and the Prussian coast. During the Stone and Bronze Ages most 
of the amber came from Jutland; since that time Prussia has fur- 
nished the greater quantity. Amber from Jutland found its way 
to Great Britain by boat across the North Sea even before the intro- 
duction of Bronze culture; it is still more frequently encountered 
in burials of the Bronze Age. 

R. C. Hoare describes a remarkable amber necklace found with 


THE BRONZE AGE Zieh 


a skeleton in a tumulus or barrow at Lake (Wiltshire) and now 
preserved in the British Museum (Fig. 347). It is composed of 
eight perforated amber plates and numerous amber beads. The 
plates vary in size, the largest having several perforations and the 
smallest (at the ends) only one or two; the beads were strung so as 
to fill alternating spaces about equal in area to the plates. A neck- 
lace similar in shape but containing beads of both amber and jet was 
found in a barrow at Kingston Deverill (Wiltshire). The specimen 





Fic. 348. BRONZE VESSELS MADE IN ITALY AND FOUND IN THE BRITISH ISLES. 


The extent of Bronze Age commerce is indicated by this Italian cauldron (left) found in 
the Thames near Battersea, and the bucket-shaped urn (right) found in the cache at 
Dowris, Ireland (see Fig. 337). Photograph from the British Museum. 


from Lake belongs to the same type as the jet necklace from Mel- 
fort (Argyllshire), which is known to belong to the Bronze Age. 

The principal routes by which traffic in amber spread over 
Europe were: (1) by way of the Vistula and the Dniester to the 
Black Sea; (2) the Elbe-Moldau-Danube route; (3) North Sea 
to the Mediterranean by way of the Rhine and the Rhone; and (4) 
the maritime route by way of the North Sea, English Channel, 
Atlantic Ocean, and the Straits of Gibraltar. 

According to Montelius, who made a special study of prehistoric 
commerce, trade routes connecting the Baltic with the Mediter- 
ranean began to be used about 2500 B.C. Many bronze weapons 
and vessels of Italian workmanship have been found in northern 
Germany (Mecklenburg) and Scandinavia (Zealand, Moen, Jut- 


212 


HUMAN ORIGINS 


land, and southern Sweden). Fibulae of Italian and La Téne types 


have been found in Sweden. 





FIG. 349. PURSE OF BRONZE FROM THE 
PILE VILLAGE OF WOLLISHOFEN, 


SWITZERLAND. 


The twisted bar is the purse; the money 
consists of the bronze rings which it car- + 
ries. Actual size. Redrawn from Hierli. 


Northern bronzes likewise found their 


way into the south, but not to 
the same extent. The excess of 
southern bronzes found in north- 
ern latitudes, was no doubt, given 
in exchange for amber. 

The Bronze Age culture com- 
plex was such as to involve com- 
mercial relations on a_ hitherto 
undreamed-of scale (Fig. 348). 
To meet the needs arising from 
this growth, special media of ex- 
change were invented; bronze it- 
self furnished a very satisfactory 
material for the purpose. A rfe- 
markable purse, partly filled with 
money, was found in the Bronze 


Age pile village of Wollishofen, near Zurich (Fig. 349). The 
purse consists of a twisted bar of bronze, 5 millimeters (0.2 inch) 
in diameter, bent to form a ring with the loose ends overlapping 


and held together by 
a’ ciredlars clasp." Lue 
money in the purse 
consists of eight small 
bronze rings strung 
on the twisted bar and 
secured against loss 
bye tlie scelacc pier ex 
Bronze Age gold 
bracelet with similar 
ring money, preserved 
in the British Mu- 
seum, was found at 
Ely (Cambridge- 





BRONZE AGE WEIGHTS 'FROM SWISS PILE 
VILLAGES. 


These weights testify to a more or less complex system 
of commercial interchange. Scale, }. After Forrer. 


shire). Molds for casting ring money have been reported from 
various parts of Europe, especially Switzerland. 
A commercial complex such as existed in Europe during the 


THE BRONZE AGE 213 


Bronze Age implies, not only trade routes, but also such aids as 
systems of weights and measures. These systems no doubt differed 
in sections remote the one from the other. ‘That commerce can be 
carried on without a uniform system of weights and measures, 
however, is evidenced by the fact that Britons and Americans still 
cling to antiquated systems. A bas-relief found at Sakkarah, dat- 
ing from the fifth dynasty, represents a balance. The balance is 
likewise mentioned in the Homeric poems. Certain weights of 
lead and tin found in Swiss pile villages must have been used in 
connection with a balance (Fig. 350). 


RELIGION AND ART 


The Neolithic Period and the Bronze Age in western Europe 
may both be referred to as dark ages in the realm of art. There is 
nothing to indicate that the classic period of Paleolithic art had ever 
existed in the same territory. Egypt and the eastern Mediterranean 
region fared better, especially during the Bronze Age, their contri- 
butions to architecture and sculpture being particularly important. 

In all ages there seems to have been an intimate relation between 
art and religion. The prayer of the Paleolithic hunter was for an 
abundance of game and success in the chase. The Neolithic herds- 
man and tiller of the soil had a different set of problems to face. 
His interest in, and dependence on, wild game was a matter of 
minor concern. His crops and domestic animals meant nearly 
everything to him. In addition, grazing and agriculture meant 
everything to his herds. In the last analysis, the really indis- | 
pensable factor was the sun, master of the seasons as well as of the 
elements. The Bronze Age races were primarily heirs of Neolithic 
culture in so far as art is concerned. Their art was largely the 
handmaid of the cult of the time, the central figure of which was 
the sun. The moon and fire were objects of veneration, but these 
two partake of the attributes of the sun. 

A discovery of capital importance bearing on sun worship was 
the small six-wheeled bronze chariot bearing a horse-drawn gilded 
disk of the sun which was found in a peat bog at Trundholm (Zea- 
land), Denmark, in 1902 (Fig. 351). The disk is vertical in posi- 
tion; its two faces are slightly convex, and the central portion of 


“JOT IN Joy “F °D2 ‘eyeosg 


“HUVNNACG ‘WIOHGNONUL NOAA LOIAVHD NOs azNoUg ‘IS¢ ‘OIg 








THE BRONZE AGE 915 


the right face is covered with leaf gold, stamped and engraved. 
The horse, a hollow casting with resin-incrusted eyes, is provided 
with a collar; for although borne by the chariot, its function is to 
symbolize movement which in turn is transmitted to both sun and 
chariot. The Trundholm chariot belongs to the second (or the 
beginning of the third) epoch of the Bronze Age in Scandinavia, 
about 1300 B.C., according to Montelius. 

Later discoveries of a similar nature have been made at Helsin- 
borg (Scania), including two horses, fragments of a chariot and 
of a sun’s disk, as well as various other objects of bronze dating 
from the second epoch. Hence there is no longer any doubt as 
to the meaning of the various more or less highly ornamented 
bronze disks found in other parts of western Europe. Some 
authors see even in the circular cromlech a symbol of sun worship, 
a view which is strengthened by the finding of a cromlech of small 
stones under the eastern extremity of the great tumulus of Mane- 
lud (Morbihan) ; on each of the stones forming the cromlech there 
was found the skull of a horse. 

The sun disappears in the west to reappear in the east. Its 
mysterious course was supposed to be over, or by means of, the 
ocean; for this, a boat rather than a wheeled chariot would the 
better meets its needs. In the cult of the sun, the bark plays a rdle 
analogous to that of the chariot. Evidence of this is afforded by 
numerous petroglyphs representing the sun bark, that is to say, 
figures of the bark associated, or in direct connection, with figures 
of the sun (see Fig. 322). Sun-bark petroglyphs are particularly 
abundant in Scandinavia, where interest in the nightly course of 
the sun is heightened by the alternating laggard, fearsomely long 
nights of winter and the almost complete replacement of night by 
twilight in summer. Even more important are the small gold figur- 
ines in the form of a bark, the hull of which is decorated with 
figures of the sun’s disk. At Nors (Jutland) a hundred gold 
figurines of the sun bark were found in a pottery vase which had 
been buried and covered by a flat stone. 

Sometimes the prow and the stern of votive Scandinavian barks 
are so fashioned as to represent the head and neck of the swan. 
This is not surprising in view of the role played by the swan in 
ancient mythology, including Greco-Roman. Moreover, nothing 


216 HUMAN ORIGINS 


could better symbolize movement by water than an aquatic bird, 
and no aquatic bird better than the swan. To the primitive mind 
the wheeled chariot would be of no avail unless drawn by a living 
creature, and the living creature which best served this purpose was 
the horse. In the same manner the swan gave life and motion to 
the otherwise lifeless boat. When Lohengrin came by water to the 
rescue of Elsa, it was by means of a swan-drawn craft. 

The frequent presence of the sun bark on the Bronze Age razors 
is not mystifying when viewed in the light of mythology. Among 
the Aryans the sun and fire 
god was also the high priest 
of medicine and surgery. The 
first razors were surgical in- 
struments, and those orna- 
mented with the sun bark pre- 
sumably belonged to the 
medicine men.) 1 Nest eaie 
handle often terminates in the 
head and neck of a swan or 
horse, both being sun syim- 
bols, or in the even more ob- 

















OG OY ae > 
O00 vious disk with spokes. 
Bro OO , The sepulture of a medi- 
Fic. 352. BRONZE SITULA FROM SIEM, cine man was found in a 
DENMARK. tumulus at Hvidegard, near 


The zonal decoration is a sun bark with swan’s Copenhagen. Lying next to 
heads at the prow and stern. The sun’s journey S 


by night (sunset to sunrise) was imagined to be the bones was a small leather 
Da eee ae a swan-drawn boat. Scale, 3. box containing te follomeee 
a piece of an amber bead, 
the tip of a serpent’s tail, a perforated shell from the Mediter- 
ranean, the lower jaw of a squirrel, the claw of a bird, a few small 
stones, a flint javelin point, a pair of small tweezers, two bronze 
razors, etc. The two razors, wrapped carefully in leather, were 
each ornamented with the head of a horse. Sophus Miiller has 
found the horsehead motive as an ornament on tweezers which like- 
wise no doubt belonged in the kit of some medicine man. 
Sun worship is easily traceable in the decoration on gold vases 


and cups. In this connection there should be mentioned the bronze 


THE BRONZE AGE 20h 


situla discovered at Lavindsgaard, containing eleven gold cups, each 
ornamented with repoussé concentric circles. The situla itself like- 
wise bore a characteristic sun motive. Several dozen gold vases 
found in Denmark are to be classed in the same category. 

Stylistic sun symbols are dominant in the decoration of the 
grand repoussé bronze situlae and vases found in various parts of 
Europe. The sun’s disk is by preference represented by a series of 
concentric circles or a wheel with spokes, and often alternates with 
the swan symbol to form zonal decorations. A fine example from 
Siem, Denmark, in which the bark is also recognizable, was pyb- 

















Fic. 353. UPPER PALEOLITHIC SUN SYMBOLS ON A BATON OF REINDEER HORN FROM 
THE CAVE OF GOURDAN, HAUTE-GARONNE, FRANCE. 


After Piette. 


lished by Undset (Fig. 352). Another example, somewhat more 
stylistic, has been reported from Hungary by Hampel. In each the 
sun bark is seen in section with swan heads at prow and stern; the 
sun’s disk rests on the semicircular bottom of the bark. Similar 
representations are found on vases, helmets, shields, and belts. 

It is possible that sun worship existed in Europe prior to the 
Bronze Age. Piette thought he found evidence of it during the 
Azilian Epoch and perhaps even earlier. On a baton of reindeer 
horn from the Cave of Gourdan he found two figures which he 
interpreted as sun symbols—a spot surrounded by a circle (Fig. 
353). In one, the radiating lines extended outward from the cir- 





218 HUMAN ORIGINS 


cumference, in the other, inward. Piette also found at Gourdan a 
thin disk of bone with a central hole from which incised lines 
radiated toward the circumference. Massenat reported an analo- 
gous bone disk from Laugerie-Basse. Among the figures appearing 
on the painted pebbles from Mas d’Azil, the circle with central spot 
recurs frequently. 

Bronze situlae are frequently mounted on chariots, and some 
of these are associated with figures of the swan. The votive 
chariot found at Skallerup, Denmark, is a good example. The two 
recurved bars at each end of the framework of the chariot termi- 
nate in figures of the swan. According to Montelius, this chariot 
belongs to the third epoch of the Bronze Age. 

Déchelette notes the presence of prehistoric votive offerings 
in connection with the thermal springs of France and concludes 
that a cult of water-supply sources, especially of thermal waters, 
must have existed. Chipped flints have been found at many im- 
portant sources, including Vichy, Bourbonne, and Saint-Honoré. 
At Saint-Moritz in the valley of the Engadine, while repairing the 
orifice of the ancient source, workmen uncovered wooden conduits. 
Two well preserved bronze swords planted upright were found at 
the base of these conduits. In close proximity to the swords were 
a poniard, a pin, and a fragment of another sword. There is 
evidence of a cult of rivers, lakes, and springs among barbaric 
races in various parts of the world. 

Before passing from the cults of the Bronze Age, a word should 
be said concerning the swastika and other symbols derived from 
the wheel, or the sun’s disk, for the two blend often into one. The 
suggestion of movement is even better expressed by the swastika 
than by the wheel; even the direction of the movement is indicated. 
It is a perfect symbol of rotation. The wide diffusion of the 
swastika and its variants over both hemispheres is a fact that should 
be noted even if it cannot be fully explained. Among the oldest 
known examples are those on spindle whorls from the second city 
of Hissarlik. The swastika had scarcely gained a foothold in 
central and western Europe until the first epoch of the Iron Age. 

Traces of a cult of the ox are also to be found in northern and 
western Europe (Fig. 354). At Bythin, Posen, a cache was uncov- 
ered containing the remains of a pair of oxen harnessed to the same 


THE BRONZE AGE 219 


yoke and associated with six flat copper axes belonging to the first 
phase of the Bronze Age. Bythin served to recall a much earlier dis- 
covery (1841) of a cache at Chatillon-sur-Seiche (Ille-et-Vilaine ) 
containing two bronze oxen, also four bronze axes of the bords- 





Fic. 354. POTTERY CRESCENTS OF THE BRONZE AGE FROM THE PILE VILLAGE OF 
CORCELETTES, LAKE NEUCHATEL, SWITZERLAND. 


By reason of the two protuberances suggestive of horns, crescents of this sort have been 
associated with the cult of the ox. Photograph by Tschumi. 


droits type, a lance head, a javelin point, a razor, and a small ingot. 
Much more numerous are the plastic representations of the horns 
alone in pairs. Examples of this sort, both in stone and pottery, 
abound especially in Bronze Age lake villages. They have been 
reported from Auvernier, Chevroux, Concise, Cortaillod, Moringen, 
Nidau, and Wollishofen. They are even more abundant in the 


220 HUMAN ORIGINS 


A&gean region, occurring in large numbers at Cnossos, Gournia, 
and Hagia Triada. According to Evans, they represent the head 
of the sacrificial ox and are not to be classed with the Egyptian 
crescent-shaped headrests. 

The region of the A*gean has also yielded many examples of 
the ox head associated with the votive ax, which takes the place 
of the sun’s disk between the horns (Fig. 355). The typical A°gean 
votive ax is two-bladed (bipennis). The ax is likewise associated 
with such sun symbols as the swan, horse, and swastika. The 
votive ax is found sculptured on some of the megalithic monuments 
in Brittany and on the walls of certain artificial caves of the Marne. 

Petroglyphs were an im- 
portant factor in Bronze Age 
art, especially in Liguria and 
Scandinavia. Clarence Bick- 
nell estimates the number of 
petroglyphs on the heights 
north of Ventimiglia at about 
seven thousand. ‘They are cut 
into the rock by means of a 
dull pointed hammer. Figures 





Fic. 355. AN 4GEAN DECORATIVE MOTIVE 
ASSOCIATING THE VOTIVE AX WITH 
THE HEAD OF THE OX. of Bovidae predominate. Some 


From a Mycenzean vase, Old Salamis, are attached to plows, some are 


Cyprus. After Evans. : 
represented as at liberty. In 


some cases the head alone (front view) is represented. There is an 
important series representing various tools and weapons—swords, 
poniard-axes, lances, plows, spades, sickles, etc. A third group is 
composed largely of geometric figures often difficult to interpret. 
The human form occurs in association with tools and weapons. 
Bicknell has counted more than one hundred laborers holding plows. 
In view of the presence of the poniard-ax, these Ligurian petro- 
elyphs are referred to the first epoch of the Bronze Age. 

Scandinavia, especially Sweden, is rich in petroglyphs. Atten- 
tion has already been called to petroglyphs of the sun bark. The 
laborer behind his ox-drawn plow is likewise found in the north, 
a good example being recorded from Bohuslan, Sweden. Another 
petroglyph from Bohuslan, representing a warrior with sword and 
shield, belongs to a late phase of the Bronze Age (Fig. 356). 


THE BRONZE AGE 


Bronze Age art is revealed in sepulture ornamentation. 


Scandinavian example is the tomb 
at Kivik, a fishing village on the 
eastern coast of Scania (Fig. 
357). The burial chamber, 4 
meters (13.1 feet) long by more 
than a meter wide, was discovered 
in 1750 when the mound over it 
was opened. The inner surfaces 
of the stones forming the cham- 
ber bear various engraved figures 
==men, horses, a chariot, axes, 
etc. 

Neolithic sculptors left some 
important examples of their art 
in the form of grave headstones, 
known as statue menhirs. The 
best known examples are from 
southern France (Aveyron, Gard, 





FIG. 357. ONE OF THE ENGRAVED STONES 
FROM THE BRONZE AGE TOMB AT 
KIVIK, SCANIA. 


After Montelius. 


221 
A fine 


minh NATAL 


Fil 

















































































































































































































































































































| 
| 













































































































































































































































































































































































































































































NAA 


Fic. 356. LATE BRONZE AGE PETRO- 
GLYPH REPRESENTING A WARRIOR 
WITH SHIELD, FROM BOHUSLAN, 
SWEDEN. 


After Montelius. 


| 


Peri ands. | ati) nee tones 
sculptured in the same manner, 
but belonging to the first epoch 
of the Bronze Age, are reported 
from Italy, Spain, and Portugal. 

At I Bocciari near Spezzia, 
province of Genoa, a farmer had 
the good fortune to uncover in 
1905 a-.series. of 
menhirs. Eight were still stand- 
ing side by side in an erect posi- 
tion (only one had fallen) under 
a low tumulus. Some represent 
the female, others the male; the 
latter in each case has as a dis- 
tinguishing mark a short dagger 
of a type which characterizes 
the first epoch of the Bronze 
Age. The sculptured flagstones 


nine statue 


222 HUMAN ORIGINS 


of schist found in the district of Béja, Portugal, are not menhirs 
in the strict sense, for they served as covers for sepultures; they 
are referable by their contents to an early phase of the Bronze Age. 
The sculptured flagstone found at Defesa (Estramadura), Spain, 
is ornamented with the figures of a sword and an ax. 


SEPULTURES 


Sepultures of the Bronze Age in Switzerland were made the 
subject of special study both by Heierli and Viollier. Heierli 
observes that while Neolithic burials were inhumations in stone 
cists with body flexed, there appeared at the close of the period in 
German Switzerland tumuli with incinerations. Viollier notes that’ 
at the close of the Neolithic Period in Switzerland there appeared 
a new form of sepulture; the tumulus was but rarely employed 
throughout the Bronze Age. Relatively rare during the first part 
of the Bronze Age, incineration was frequently employed toward 
its close. He does not know how the pile dwellers disposed of 
their dead. 

Forel has recently published an important monograph on the 
Bronze Age necropolis at Boiron near Morges, containing espe- 
cially tombs without tumuli and belonging, evidently, to the fourth 
epoch of the Bronze Age. Both incineration and inhumation rites 
were employed. In his Protohelvétes, Gross describes the cist tomb 
of Auvernier, one of the first Bronze Age sepultures to be recorded. 

Before his death in 1914 Décheiette had made considerable 
progress in the classification of Bronze Age sepultures in France, 
where copper was introduced first of all in the south and west. 
Among the many dolmenic sepultures of the first epoch of the 
Bronze Age, that of the dolmen of Liquisse (Aveyron) is typical. 
In it were found two pins with trefoil head, two tattooing instru- 
ments (lozenge-shaped with double point), a small poniard with 
rivets, small rings, a steatite bead, beads of tufa, bone, amber, and 
shell, divers pendants, and finely chipped arrowheads of flint. 

An important discovery was made in 1908 by Baron Blanc and 
H. Miller of two flexed skeletons at Fontaine-le-Puis (Savoie). 
With one there were only Neolithic objects; the objects associated 
with the other skeleton included a flat ax, a small dagger with 


THE BRONZE AGE 223 


rivets, a point, and a pendant, all of pure copper; three polished 
stone axes, numerous flint arrowheads without barbs, flint blades, 
a shell, and teeth of the wild boar. 

Many of the tumuli in eastern France date from the first and 
second epochs of the Bronze Age. In the commune of La Chapelle 
(Jura) Piroutet recently explored a tumulus and found a cist of 
dry masonry containing the extended skeleton of a male. At the 
belt level lay a poniard with rivets; on the breast, a bronze ax of 
the bords-droits type; and a little nearer the head, a pin and a 
golden spiral. The sepultures in the tumulus of Clucy, canton of 
Salins (Jura), belong to a somewhat earlier phase of the Bronze 
Age. The second epoch of the Bronze Age is represented by the 
inhumations in the Buissieres Cave at Meyrannes (Gard), where 
each one of the dozen skeletons bore from six to eight bronze 
bracelets. 

Brittany, where Neolithic races left such important sepulchral 
monuments, contains also the most numerous and _ interesting 
sepultures of the Bronze Age in France. Two types with central 
chamber are recognizable, one rectangular in plan with flat cover- 
ing stone, and the other circular in plan with vaulted roofing. In 
each case the supporting walls are of dry masonry instead of the 
megaliths set on end employed by the Neolithic builders. 

These sepultures belong for the most part to the second epoch 
of the Bronze Age. The objects buried with the dead are similar 
to those of the Mediterranean littoral. Stone is associated with 
both copper and bronze, metal still being rare. Flint was still used 
for arrowheads, which were chipped with a degree of skill rarely 
witnessed in Neolithic times. Inhumation was the dominant mode 
of sepulture in France during the first and second epochs of the 
Bronze Age, with the exception of Brittany, where incineration 
was in the ascendant. 

In France inhumation continued to be the rule during the thud 
epoch of the Bronze Age. The sepulture of Courtevant in the 
commune of Barbuise (Aube) serves as a type. The walls of the 
tomb were built of dry masonry. The skeleton of a warrior lay 
extended with head to the west. The sword lying between the 
leg bones of the warrior was left there in its bronze-mounted 
wooden sheath; at the right hand was a bronze ring, and at the hip 


224 HUMAN ORIGINS 


a bronze knife; a bronze pin rested on the clavicle, and two 
cylindrical beads of sheet bronze were lying on the right femur. 
The nonmetallic objects included the canine tooth of a wild boar 
(on the breast) and numerous fragments of black pottery at the 
feet: 

Sepultures of this epoch containing swords are rare; Brunner 
has reported one from a tumulus at Staadorf (Upper Palatinate). 
There are, however, many containing characteristic pins, bracelets, 





Fic. 358. ENEOLITHIC SEPULTURE FOUND AT BUBENAC, NEAR PRAGUE, BOHEMIA, 


The arms and legs are flexed. Pottery vessels are found lying about the head. Pho- 
tograph by Jira. 


and other objects of apparel; the contents of these bear a remark- 
able similarity on both sides of the Rhine valley and in eastern 
Hrances 

Sepultures of the fourth epoch of the Bronze Age are dis- 
tinguishable by their cultural contents and the predominance of 
incineration over inhumation. They are by no means rare in 
eastern France. The most important necropoli of central France 
are composed of the so-called flat tombs, exemplified by the ceme- 
teries of Pougues-les-Eaux and Arthel (Niévre) and Dompierre 


THE BRONZE AGE 220 


(Allier). The so-called Urnenfelder of Germany are typical ceme- 
teries of this epoch (Fig. 358). 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


ABERCROMBY, John, A Study of the Bronze Age Pottery of Great Britain 
and Ireland and Its Associated Grave-Goods, 2 vols., 291 pp., 110 pls. 
(Oxford, 1912). 

Betz, Robert, ‘‘Die bronze—und hallstattzeitlichen Fibeln,” ZE, 
xlv, 659-900 (1913). 

.BREvIL, H., “L’Age du bronze dans le bassin de Paris,’’ Anthr., xi, 
503-534 (1900); X11, 283-296 (1901); xili, 467-475 (1902); xiv, 
501-518 (1903); XVi, 149-171 (19058). 

CorFrey, George, The Bronze Age in Ireland, xi+107 pp. (London, 
IQ13). 

Dussaup, René, “L’ile de Chypre, particuliérement aux Ages du cuivre 
et du bronze,” REA, xvii, 143-175, 181-212 (1907). 

Evans, A. J., “The Prehistoric Tombs of Knossos,” Arch. lix, Pt. 2, 
391-562 (1905). 

Gow ann, Wm., “Copper and Its Alloys in Prehistoric Times,” JAI, 
X¥XXV1, 11-38, 3 pls. (1906). 

—— “The Metals in Antiquity,” JAI, xlii, 235-287 (1912). 

GREENWELL, Wm. (and Wm. P. Brewis), ‘“‘The Origin, Evolution, and 
Classification of the Bronze Spear-Heads in Great Britain,’’ Arch., 
Ix1i, Pt. 2, 439-472 (1909). 

HA, Edith H., “‘The Decorative Art of Crete in the Bronze Age,”’ 
Univ. of Penn. Trans., Dept. of Arch., ti, 5-49 (1906). 

HEIERLI, J., ““Der Phalbau Wollishofen,” Mztt. der antig. Gesellschaft in 
Zurich, Xxii, 1-32, 4 pls. (1886). 

Hoops, J., Runenschrift und Hacken-kreuz (Mtnchen). 

Keitu, A., “The Bronze Age Invaders of Britain,” JAI, xlv, 12-22 
(1915). 

Monretius, O., ‘‘Die Chronologie der altesten Bronzezeit in Nord- 
deutschland und Skandinavien,” AA, xxv, 443-483 (1898); zbid., 
XXvi, 11-40 (1899). 

— ‘Pre-Classical Chronology in Greece and Italy,” JAI, xxvi, 
261-271 (1897). 

— “The Chronology of the British Bronze Age,” Arch., 2d ser., 
Ixi, 97-162 (1908). 

— La civilisation primitive en Italie deputs l’introduction des métaux, 
5 vols. text and plates (Stockholm, 1895~—1910). 

— “Der Handel in der Vorzeit,’’ PZ, ii, 249-291 (1910). 


226 HUMAN ORIGINS 


Moreau, J. de., ““Observations sur les origines des arts céramique dans 
le bassin méditerranéen,”’ REA, xvii, 401-417 (1907). 

MortI1Liet, A. de, “L’argent aux temps protohistoriques en Europe,”’ 
REA, Xili, 1-24 (1903). 

—— ‘Classification des fibules d’aprés leur ressort,” RA, xxii, 189-213 
(1913). 

NEERGAARD, Carl, “‘Dépots d’objets de l’Age de Bronze,” Nordiske 
Fortidsminder, 3 Hefte, 69-124, 8 pls. (Copenhagen, 1807). 

PEAKE, Haroip, The Bronze Age and the Celtic World, 4to, x1+202 
pp., 14 pls. (London, 1922). 

PrIrROUTET, Maurice, ‘Questions relatives a l’Age du bronze,” Anthr., 
XXVill, 55-91 (1917). 

SrrET, L., ‘Les cassiterides et l’empire colonial des Phénicians,” Anthe., 
xix, 129-165 (1908); xx, 129-166, 283-328 (1909); xxi, 281-312 
(1910). 

Vayson, A., ‘‘Faucille préhistorique de Solférino,” Anthr., xxix, 393- 
422 (1919). 

VIOLLIER, D., “‘Les débuts de l’Age du bronze en Suisse,” Beztrage zur 
Anthr., Ethnol., und Urgeschichte, Anniversary Vol. to F. Sarasin, 
256-261 (1919). 

ZABOROWSKI, 4., ‘‘ Les introducteurs du cuivre,” REA, xviii, 1-19 (1908). 


CHAPTER SCLy 
THE IRON AGE 


The Iron Age in central and western Europe is divided into 
two epochs, known as Hallstatt and La Téne (or Latene). The 
first of these, the Hallstatt, corresponds roughly with Dipylon and 
archaic periods in Greece; the Epoch of La Téne began shortly 
before classic Greek art reached its apogee. The Hallstatt Epoch 
in France is synchronous with the late Celtic epoch, the La Téne 
Epoch with Gaulois culture. The first epoch of the Iron Age in 
Britain, also called Late Keltic, is synchronous with the Epoch of 
La Tene on the Continent. 

A predynastic tomb at El Gerzeh, explored by the British 
School of Archeology in Egypt, contained a necklace consisting 
of beads of agate, cornelian, gold, and iron. The same sepulture 
contained a harpoon of copper. Gowland’s analysis of the iron 
beads disclosed the fact that the metal employed was not native 
ore but the result of a reduction process. The necklace from El 
Gerzeh was not intrusive, since the tomb had been intact up to the 
time of the exploration by the British School. This isolated dis- 
covery does not suffice to establish the presence of an Age of 
Iron in predynastic Egypt. The early dynasties do not reveal the 
use of iron. In the long tribute lists of the eighteenth dynasty 
(1500 B.C.), examined by Hall, iron is nowhere mentioned. Dur- 
ing the nineteenth dynasty (about 1250 B.C.) Hall finds mention 
of iron in a religious text. 

The Iron Age seems to have had its beginning in the valleys of 
the Euphrates and Tigris at about the same time as in Egypt (ca. 
1300 to 1200 B.C.). The discovery of an enormous cache of iron 
was made prior to 1867 by Victor Place in a part of the ensemble 
forming the ruins of the palace of Khorsabad, near ancient Nineveh. 
The hidden stock consisted for the most part of shuttle-shaped 
ingots each weighing anywhere between 4 and 20 kilograms (8.8 

227 


228 HUMAN ORIGINS 


and 44 pounds). Each ingot was perforated for suspension near 
one end. An iron ingot of similar shape and pierced near one end, 
a gift of A. Merwin to the Peabody Museum of Yale University, 
was found at Mosul, Assyria (Fig. 359). 

Crete was an important early center for trade in iron; the 
metal was known there as early as 1100 B.C. In Greece the first 
epoch of the Iron Age corresponds with the Dipylon Epoch (1200- 
800 B.C.), which was characterized by a rectilinear geometric style 
in art. The epoch derives its name from a necropolis known as 
Dipylon (double gate) near one of the gates of Athens. Dipylon 
tombs resemble in many respects those of the early Hallstatt Epoch 





Fic. 359. IRON INGOT FROM MOSUL, ASSYRIA. 
Scale, ca. 3. Yale University Collection. Photograph by the author. 


in western Europe. In both one finds a juxtaposition of incinera- 
tions and inhumations. 

The ceramic ornamentation of the Dipylon Epoch is geometric, 
differing in this respect widely from the graceful Mycenean style. 
Meanders, triangles, zigzags, and symbols derived from the swas- 
tika and wheel predominate. Representations of animals, including 
the wild goat, horse, water bird, and man, do not escape the 
stylistic tendency. The Dipylon style made itself felt also in the 
Danube valley and as far west as Gaul, judging by ceramic ex- 
amples dating from the late Bronze and early Iron Ages. The main 
difference is in technique, the brush being still unknown in these 
regions. 

The beginning of the Iron Age in Italy is placed at about 


THE IRON AGE 229 


1000 B.C. To the Neolithic and Bronze Age populations was added 
new blood, including Umbrian, Greek, and especially Etruscan. 
Montelius divides the period from 1000 to 500 B.C. into six epochs: 
two proto-Etruscan and four Etruscan. The proto-Etruscan is 
synchronous with the first Villanovan phase of northern Italy. 
Throughout the proto-Etruscan the ceramic ornamentation remains 
geometric. ‘The necropoli of Corneto and Vulci belong to the 
proto - Etruscan 


of the second phase. 
With the first and | 

second Etruscan [| LG EE = 
phases, about 700- ee 
600 B.C., Ionian and 
Punic influences begin 
to be felt. The sepul- 
tures are especially 
rich, among the bet- 
ter known being the 
Regulini - Galassi at 
Cervetri, the tomb 


known as the Cave of The rite of incineration, which dominated the burials of 
ieiseoat .V 11.1¢ 1, the the early Hallstatt Epoch, changed to that of inhumation 
before the end of the period. After Hoernes. 
‘tomba del Duce at 
Vetulonia, the Bernardini tomb at Preneste, and the first sepultures 
with chariots in southern Germany, Switzerland, and eastern Gaul. 
Villanovan culture derives its name from the proto-historic 
cemetery at Villanova, 8 kilometers (5 meters) east of Bologna. 
The cemetery yielded 179 incineration sepultures and fourteen 
skeletons. A much greater cemetery was explored at Marzabotto, 
southwest of Bologna, beginning in 1869. A study of the sepul- 
tures (more than two thousand) proves that Bologna was founded 
by the Umbrians toward the close of the Bronze Age. The sepul- 
tures of Bologna antedating the occupation by the Gauls belong 
to a period which may be divided into four epochs: (1) Benacci I 
(1000-900 B.C.), incineration tombs, pottery with incised decora- 


i) 4 
|. ~B, SW f 
phases, the tomba del exes (By AMO Mie tn beans “Wohice iy 
Guerriero at Corneto siitasle mi fT PUNE | tte gh SNE 
being a good example ( | i? 
‘ 
ce { | b 




















Fic. 360. INHUMATION TOMB SUPERPOSED ON AN 
INCINERATION TOMB AT HALLSTATT, AUSTRIA. 


230 HUMAN ORIGINS 


tion; (2) Benacci II (900-750 B.C.), incineration tombs, pottery 
with stamped decoration; (3) Arnoaldi (750-550 B.C.), incinera- 
tion tombs, stamped decoration, Greek vases still rare; (4) La 
Certosa or Etruscan Epoch (550-400 B.C.), pit burials in wooden 
coffins, also incineration tombs, so-called Certosa fibulae, Greek 
vases with black figures and red figures. 

An important necropolis dating from the first epoch of the Iron 
Age, known as Bordes-sur-Lez, is situated in the valley of the 
Riberot (Ariege). The 
collection gathered 
there by thes hoe 


le \ 


i 
ll @ 
|i : 








eS Cau-Durban is in the 
——— museum of Saint- 
Ss— Remo, Toulouse. It in- 


cludes many pottery 
urns that were em- 
ployed as _ containers 
for the incinerated re- 
mains of the dead; also 
various objects of 
bronze and iron. 





THE HALLSTATT 
EPpocH 


The first epoch of 
the Iron Age in central 
Fic. 361. BRONZE SITULA OF THE HALLSTATT EPocH, and western Europe is 


Scale Ra ain known 2s a 

Ao : Epoch (goo—500 B.C.). 

Hallstatt culture is traceable over an extensive territory from 

Hungary to Spain and Portugal. Its influence was felt but little 

in the British Isles, northern Germany, and Scandinavia, where the 
Bronze Age may be said to have lasted till about 500 B.C. 

Sepultures.—The cemetery of Hallstatt is situated in the Aus- 

trian Salzkammergut, near important prehistoric salt mines. It 

was discovered in 1846. The first exploration was by Ramsauer 

on behalf of the Vienna museum and lasted until 1864. Of the 





bie a RON> AGI paaM 


993 sepultures uncovered during this period, 525 were inhumations, 
455 complete incinerations, and 13 partial incinerations. From 
1871 to 1876 explorations on behalf of the museum at Lintz un- 
covered 130 sepultures. In all some three thousand tombs have 
been explored at Hallstatt. Various authors have published papers 
on the collections from this site, the most thorough study being 
by Hoernes of Vienna, who states that incineration was the domi- 
nant rite at the beginning, but that inhumation led by the close of 
the epoch (Fig. 360). 
The skeletons for the 
most part have an east- 
west orientation and lie 
either on the back or the 
side. Sometimes two 
and even three or four 
skeletons were placed in 
the same sepulture, pre- 
sumably at one time. 
Incineration sepultures 
likewise o f ten contain 
the remains of more 


























LD 


Mj 











than one individual. Fic. 362. BRONZE BASIN OF THE HALLSTATT EPOCH, 
There are cases where FROM HALLSTATT. 


cere Tie bast fe ae ceprare mango ond bos le 
sented in the same tomb. 

Grave goods from Hallstatt comprise a large and varied assort- 
ment. Of the nearly six thousand specimens collected by Ram- 
sauer, 3,574 are of bronze, 1,242 of clay, 593 of iron, 270 of amber, 
73 of glass, and 64 of gold. A few of the objects are referable to 
the Epoch of La Tene. Objects of apparel predominate—brace- 
lets, splendid necklaces of amber, chains with pendants, fibulae, 
many bronze belts, beads, and ornamental pins with double spiral 
at the head. The fine series of bronze vases, situlae, etc., hammered 
bronze testify to intimate commercial relations with Italy. Some 
of the bronze situlae are of large size, nearly 1 meter (3.3 feet) 
high and 50 centimeters (19.7 inches) in diameter (Figs. 361 and 
362). Other important cemeteries in Austria dating from the 
Hallstatt Epoch include: Gemeinlebarn, Hadersdorf, Feichten- 


Zon HUMAN ORIGINS 


boden, Paudorf, Rabensburg, Statzendorf (near Herzogenburg), 
and Stillfried, all in Lower Austria; and Altendorf and Wies in 
Styria. 

The Hallstatt Epoch is represented in various parts of Europe: 
Hungary, at Oedenburg; Gorizia, at Santa Lucia (flat graves) ; 
Carniola, at Watsch, Hrastje, Magdalenberg, Rovise, Sankt 
Margarethen, Tersise, Toplitz; Moravia, at Byciskala (Adamstal) ; 
Wiirttemberg, at Burrenhof (2,500 graves, vase painted in red, 
yellow, and brown), Bavaria, at Wurzburg; and Switzerland, at 
Unter Lunkhofen in 
the AargauiGiie 
363) and Giubiasco, 
cantOn- Ole leesm 
(Fig. 364). 

In southern Ger- 
many and eastern 
and central France 
two phases of the 
Hallstatt Epoch are 
distinguishable. The 
first phase is char- 


acterized by great 


Fic. 363. POTTERY VASE OF THE HALLSTATT EPOCH, FROM jron swords and 
UNTER LUNKHOFEN, SWITZERLAND. 


Photograph by Viollier. 





practically no articles 
of adornment, the 
second phase by short swords with antennae and multifarious 
articles of adornment. 

The following is a brief inventory of objects belonging to the 
two phases of the Hallstatt Epoch: 


PuasE I (ca. 900-700 B.C.).—Swords of bronze and swords of 
the same type in iron, bronze razors of openwork, no fibulae, Italian 
vases of beaten bronze, ceramic urns with flaring rims. 

PuaseE II (ca. 700-500 B.C.).—Iron swords and poniards with 
antennae, various bronze anklets and bracelets, belts of beaten bronze 
with stamped ornamentation, earrings of bronze, fibulae of various 
types, bronze pins with swanlike terminal curvature, ceramic urns 
with bulging sides, black figured Attic vases of the 6th century B.C. 





Fic. 364. GRAVE OF THE HALLSTATT EPOCH DISCOVERED AT GIUBIASCO, 
SWITZERLAND. 


The upper picture shows the grave before the covering stones were removed; the lower 
picture, the opened grave. Photographs by Viollier. 


234 HUMAN ORIGINS 


The Hallstatt Epoch has sometimes been referred to as the 
epoch of tumult. Such a statement is misleading, for the reason 
that dolmenic tumuli were employed in the Neolithic Period; be- 
sides, sepulchral mounds were in use at an early phase of the 
Bronze Age. Moreover, tumuli did not disappear with the passing 
of the Hallstatt Epoch, but persisted in certain regions during the 
Epoch of La Tene. Nevertheless, the sepulture type for the first 
epoch of the Iron Age can justly be styled tumular. Flat sepul- 
tures were exceptional. Successive burials were made in the same 
tumulus. Many likewise contain intrusive burials belonging to 
the Epoch of La Tene. The tumuli are, for the most part, oval 
or circular with a depression at the center. The highest are not 
more than 5 or 6 meters (16.5 to 19.7 feet) in elevation and the 
diameter rarely exceeds 30 meters (98.5 feet). 

Hallstattian tumuli may be divided into two categories, those 
in which the central sepulture is at the original level of the ground, 
and those in which it occupies a pit excavated beneath the original 
ground level. The latter is more rare and generally contains a 
central incineration. The only difference between it and the tomba 
a pogzo of the Villanovan necropoli of northern Italy is that it is 
covered by a tumulus. 

The first phase of the Hallstatt Epoch is well represented in 
four large tumuli explored by Flouest in the commune of Magny- 
Lambert (Burgundy). One of these, known as Monceau-Laurent, 
may serve as a type. The central core is an imbricated structure 
of flat stones. At its center is the sepulchral chamber built of flag- 
stones set upright. Over the whole is a “chape” of clay which in 
turn is covered by a layer of stones. 

With the second phase of the Hallstatt Epoch appeared the rich 
chariot burials which persisted during the Epoch of La Tene (Fig. 
401). The tumulus of La Garenne at Les Mousselots, near Chatillon- 
sur-Seine (Cote-d’Or), is an example. Before it was leveled by 
a farmer in 1845-1846, this tumulus, composed of earth and 
stones, measured 4 meters (13.1 feet) in height by 70 meters 
(229.8 feet) in diameter. In it were found the remains of a chariot, 
a tripod of iron and bronze, and a splendid bronze basin orna- 
mented with four griffon heads, the last of Greek workmanship 
dating from the seventh to sixth century. At Les Mousselots is an- 


THE IRON AGE 259 


other tumuius which yielded rich archeological treasure when 
opened in 1863, the tumulus known as Le Champ de la Butte. It 
was an inhumation chariot burial. With the body were found two 
gold earrings and a gold bracelet. 

Celtic tumuli are particularly abundant in the plateau region 
of Doubs and Jura, attesting a relatively dense population made 
possible by rich salt deposits and forests of oak. In this section 
is located Alesia, mentioned in Cesar’s Commentaries. 

La Motte d’Apremont, one of the most important tumuli in 
Haute-Saone, had about the same dimensions as that of La Garenne 
(4 meters high by 70 meters in diameter ) ; it was composed wholly 
of sandy earth. It yielded fragments of a four-wheeled chariot, 
gold fibulae, a gold crown in repoussé work, beads of amber and 
ivory, a gold cup, an iron sword, a flint arrowhead, and a large 
bronze basin with iron handles. The chariot burial of Apremont 
belongs to the second phase of the Hallstatt Epoch. 

The Pyrenean region is rich in tumuli of the Hallstatt Epoch, 
but their builders were poor in comparison with those who left im- 
portant treasures in the tumuli of eastern Gaul. Italian situlae 
Greek vases, gold ornaments, and metal tripods are lacking. One 
does, however, find two characteristic objects, the poniard with 
antennae and the iron javelin. The sepultures opened by General 
Pothier on the plateau of Gers all belong to the incineration class. 
As a rule, several cinerary urns are found in each tumulus. In 
addition to calcined bones, these urns contain remnants of the 
deceased’s apparel very much damaged by the flames. The cinerary 
urns are accompanied by vases containing offerings of various 
kinds. The Hallstattians of the Pyrenees had their own sources 
of salt supply at Salies-du-Salat (Haute-Garonne) and Salies-de- 
Béarn (Basses-Pyrénées ). 

Crossing the Pyrenees into Spain, one finds an important center 
of Hallstatt culture in the province of Guadalajara, likewise in 
proximity to saline deposits. The Marquis of Cerralbo has ex- 
plored a great necropolis at Aguilar de Anguita near the head 
waters of the Jalon. Incineration was the rite in all the more than 
two thousand tombs uncovered at Aguilar. The tombs were in 
rows, each marked by a crude stela. Some of the male sepultures 
contained the complete equipment of a warrior—iron poniard with 


236 HUMAN ORIGINS 


antennae, two lances differing in size, the metal trappings of a 
shield, bridle bits, etc. The necropolis of Aguilar belongs to the 
very close of the Hallstatt Epoch. Two other important necropoli 
near Aguilar have been explored by the Marquis of Cerralbo, 
namely, Luzaga and Arcobriga; both belong to the Epoch of La 
Tene. 

Chariot Burials—The custom of burying a warrior with his 
chariot appeared north of the Alps during the second phase of the 
Hallstatt Epoch. Not more than five or six can be definitely 
referred to the Hallstatt Epoch, and these are in eastern France. 
The chariots were both light and luxurious and were for the most 
part four-wheeled. They are not accompanied by bridle bits or 
other harness trappings. Hubs and even spokes were covered 





Fic. 365. DOUBLE RAMPART OF THE CAMP D’AFFRIQUE, MEURTHE-ET-MOSELLE, 
FRANCE. 


After Beaupré. 


with forged iron. Those found at La Garenne and La Butte (Cote 
d’Or) and Apremont and Savoyeux (Haute-Sadne) are examples. 
Similar chariot burials occur in Switzerland and southern Ger- 
many. The principal finds in Switzerland were in two tumuli at 
Anet, the tumulus of Grauholz and the tumulus of Grachwil, both 
in the canton of Berne. Similar discoveries have been reported 
from Bavaria, Wurttemberg, Baden, and Hohenzollern. In some 
cases the chariots are two-wheeled and in some four-wheeled. 
Bronze and iron bridle bits occur in Bavarian tumuli, 
Habitations.—Much more is known concerning sepultures than 
of habitations during the first epoch of the Iron Age. A popula- 
tion that left such important tumuli must have possessed fixed 
abodes, but these for the most part were composed of perishable 
materials. In eastern France recent explorations have brought to 
light a number of Hallstatt camps, including the Camp de Chateau 
at Salins (Jura) and the Camp d’Affrique at Messein (Meurthe- 
et-Moselle). A section of the deposits at Camp de Chateau re- 
vealed three successive horizons containing objects referable to the 


THE TRON AGE 237 


second phase of the Hallstatt Epoch. At the Camp d’Affrique 
there is a double concentric rampart which served as a protection 
for the rectangular huts (Fig. 365). 









































Fic. 366. IRON-BLADED DAGGERS WITH ANTENNAE OF THE HALLSTATT EPOCH, FROM 
HALLSTATT. 


No. 1 has both handle and blade of iron; No. 2 has a wooden sheath; No. 3 is a de luxe 
dagger, the sheath set with river pearls; No. 4 has a bronze handle. Scale, ca. +. After 
von Sacken. 


Hallstatt camps similar to the Camp de Chateau and the Camp 
d’Affrique have been explored in Saxony. Steinsburg, near Rom- 
hild in Thiiringen, affords a good example. It belongs to the very 


238 HUMAN ORIGINS 


close of the Hallstatt Epoch and continued to be occupied during 
the Epoch of La Tene. Foundations of dry masonry prove that 
the houses were constructed on rectangular as well as circular plans. 
The ellipse formed by the ramparts at Steinsburg measures 1,052 
by 838 meters (3,453.2 by 2,751.4 feet), one of the largest (La 
Tene) strongholds in Germany. It was defended by several con- 
centric walls of dry masonry (basalt). | 


LY 7 





Fic. 367. BRONZE SITULA OF THE HALLSTATT EPOCH, FROM THE CERTOSA OF 
BOLOGNA, ITALY. 


Oriental influence is clearly seen in the decorations. Scale, ca. Z, 


The Hallstatt Epoch seems to have been the one in which in- 
jand or continental sources of salt supply were first worked on a 
commercial basis. Waters charged with salt were allowed to trickle 
over bars of baked clay under which a fire burned. As the water 
evaporated, the salt crystallized on the heated bars. Quantities of 
baked-clay débris have been found on salt-factory sites, particularly 
in the valley of the Seille, near Vic de Burthecourt (Lorraine), 
France. 





Fic. 368. BRONZE VASE OF THE HALLSTATT EPOCH, FROM GRACHWIL, SWITZERLAND 





Photograph by Tschumi. 


240 HUMAN ORIGINS 


W eapons.—Hallstatt swords were remarkable for uniformity 
of type in contrast with the variety of types in use during the 
Bronze Age. The first sword was of bronze, similar to one of 
the models of the fourth epoch of the Bronze Age. The second 
was a long, heavy iron copy of the first. The scabbard continued 
to be of wood or leather. The third type was a short sword of iron 
with the pommel terminating in two horns or antennae; in some 
cases the scabbard is of beaten bronze. The absence of defensive 





Fic. 369. BRONZE BUCKETS WITH RIBBED SIDES OF THE HALLSTATT EPOCH. 


The one on the left, when found in a tumulus near Orléans, France, contained human 
bones, probably of a female, fragments of textiles and a few objects of iron. 


armor in metal is likewise to be noted. Helmets and shields, if 
they existed at all, were made of more perishable material. 

The Hallstatt dagger with antennae is more varied than the 
sword. The iron blade is pointed and generally ribbed. The 
handle is of bronze or iron, terminating in two antennae. ‘The 
length averages about 45 centimeters (17.7 inches). The breadth 
of the blade is quite variable, the broadest being classed as the 
most recent. A few of the Hallstatt poniards from northern Italy 
and southern Germany have but one edge, the dorsal portion of the 


THE IRON AGE 241 


blade being very thick. Beginning with the second phase of the 
Hallstatt Epoch, metal sheaths were the rule for daggers—at first 
bronze and then iron (Fig. 366). The earliest Hallstatt lances 
resemble the classic model of the Bronze Age; those of the second 
phase of the Hallstatt Epoch are more varied in form. According 
to Déchelette, the bow and arrow did not play an important role 
during the Hallstatt Epoch. 








Fic. 370. BRONZE VASES WHICH SERVED AS WINE PITCHERS AT THE END OF THE 
HALLSTATT EPOCH AND AT THE BEGINNING OF THE EPOCH OF LA TENE. 


These vases, belonging to what is known as the cenochoe type, are obviously of 
Greek origin. 


Tools and Utensils—Bronze buckets are of two types, (1) 
cylindrical and (2) those with bulging sides. Both were made by 
riveting together pieces of sheet bronze. The vessel with bulging 
sides is called situla. Three types of the situla belong to the Hallstatt 
Epoch: (1) the plain situla, (2) the situla with European geometric 
decoration, and (3) the situla with Greco-Oriental decoration. 
Situlae are provided with one or two movable handles. The plain 
situla is found in Italy, Ireland, and central Europe. Situlae with 


242 HUMAN ORIGINS 


geometric decoration do not occur in Gaul, but they have been 
reported from Scandinavia and central Europe. 

During the second phase of the Hallstatt Epoch, the Greco- 
Oriental influence began to be manifest in Italy and central Europe. 
Situlae decorated in this style have been found at Bologna (Fig. 
367), Este, in the Tyrol, Carniola, Istria, Austiia sania 
Figures in repoussé fill zones which often cover practically the 
whole body of the vessel. The situla found at Watsch in Carniola 
is a good example. 
One zone _ contains 
men riding in horse- 
drawn two-wheeled 
chariots or on horse- 
back, “also” onmiisaeat 
leading or driving 
horses. In another 
are human figures 
seated, standing, or in 
action. A third zone 
is devoted entirely to 
animal forms. 

A. splendid bronze 
vase was discovered 
in 1851 in a large 


f ‘ Hallstatt tumulus at 
IG. Ls AINTED CLAY VESSELS OF THE HALLSTATT ve . . 
H Grachwil, parish of 


EPOCH, FROM BOHEMIA. 


These urns, found in an inhumation burial, were deco- Meikirch (B Cor e) ’ 
rated in black on an orange slip. Originals in the National incinera- 
Museum, Prague. Photograph by J. Schranil. where the Eee ets 





tion sepulture was en- 
countered at a depth of 2 meters (6.5 feet). The vase (Fig. 368) 
was full of ashes, and about it were the remains of a chariot with 
iron wheels, two bronze fibulae, and a clay vessel. The walls of 
the vase, now preserved in the museum at Berne, are thin, its form 
perfect, and its decoration admirable. The principal ornament rests 
on the shoulder and is attached near its summit to the rim. It 
represents a winged female divinity. In each hand she holds a 
hare, and about her are grouped two pairs of lions, a double-headed 
serpent, and an eagle. A palmette forms a base for the group. 


THE IRON AGE 243 


This divinity, evidently of Asiatic origin, is found on many metal 
and clay objects belonging to the archaic Greek Epoch, and always 
with the same animal entourage. The two handles of the vase 
are both broken and in exactly the same manner. 

Cylindrical vessels with ribbed sides are divided into two series, 
(1) those with fixed handles and (2) those with movable handles 
(Fig. 369). The first group come almost exclusively from the 
necropoli of Bologna; the second group is found not only all over 
Italy, but also in the countries north of the Alps. Bronze vases 
of the cenochoé type, which were used as wine pitchers, are obviously 
of Greek origin; they are often found at sites belonging to the 
second phase of the Hallstatt Epoch and La Téne I (Fig. 370). 

Large bronze cauldrons often 
supported by tripods were in gen- 
eral use in Greece and Italy during 
the Hallstatt Epoch. In central 
Europe and Gaul pothooks are 
associated with bronze cauldrons 
before the close of the epoch. The 









Per ie 
Sasson o| 


MYA =! 







SA ees 
Pent 


association of tripod and cauldron Fic. 372. Grass VESSEL FROM HALL- 
feet rsimtie timulus ot La STATT. 


. ° ¥ Glass vases first appeared in central 
Garenne at Sainte Colombe, es Europe during the second phase of the 


Chatillon-sur-Seine (Cote d’Or). Hallstatt Epoch. Scale, 3. After Von 
: Sacken. 

The cauldron is of bronze, the 

tripod of bronze and iron. ‘To the shoulder of the cauldron are 

attached four griffon heads of cast bronze, chiseled. Similar griffon 

heads dating from the seventh century B.C. were found at 

Olympia. 

During the Hallstatt Epoch the primitive hearth of stones gave 
place to one fitted for the use of such domestic aids as andirons, 
spits, pothooks, and of course the cauldron—all originally impor- 
tations from beyond the Alps. Bronze cups and bowls were more 
varied and numerous during the Hallstatt Epoch than they were 
during the Bronze Age. Some were importations from the south, 
others were products of local factories. They were generally de- 
posited in a large vase or situla in case of inhumation, or in the 
cinerary urn. There are several varieties depending on form and 
finish. Some are provided with a single handle attached to the 


244 ~ HUMAN ORIGINS 


rim and near the base. The form of the body is ovoid to hemi- 
spherical. In some cases the rim is left plain, in others it is 
decorated with an incised or a repoussé pattern. 

The Hallstatt Epoch witnessed an important change in the art 
of making knives—the knife with articulating blade, suitable for 
the pocket. The cold type persisted, to be sure, but at the station 
of Hallstatt there were 
found knives with iron 
blades that could be shut in 
bone handles and carried in 
the pocket, a form which 
persists to-day in the or- 
dinary pocket knife. The 
knives of the epoch were of 
iron. The nonarticulating 
blades were often recurved 
at the end; in some, a ring 
was attached to the end of 
the handle. 

Pottery. — The potter’s 
wheel was still unknown in 
central and western Europe, 
but the potter knew how to 
produce by hand a remark- 
: , ably regular surface. Small 
a oe —s cups are frequently foundiin 








Fic. 373. FEMALE COSTUME OF THE HALLSTaTr Sepultures of the epoch; 
EPOCH. where incineration was prac- 


After studying textile relics from tumuli, Keller 4: 
made this reconstruction of a female costume con- ticed, they SS if l BN d 


sisting of a sleeveless tunic fastened at the waist within the cinerary titns i 
by a broad belt and covered by a mantle. After : . 
Keller, many cases these libation 
cups form an integral part 
of the funerary urn, being attached in one or two rows about the 
neck and on the shoulder of the urn. There were two classes of 
pottery vessels, (1) those reserved for funerary purposes and (2) 
those for common usage. The common ware was made of a brown, 
black, or reddish paste of rather fine texture, especially in the case 


of smaller vessels, but friable and not well baked. Much of this 


a 


THE IRON AGE 245 


ware is perfectly plain; some of it is decorated by means of simple 
geometric motives. 

The classic motive known as the meander appeared in central 
Europe during the Hallstatt Epoch. An urn with meander pattern 
was found in an inhumation sepulture of rough stones under a 
tumulus at Diarville (Vosges). Examples have likewise been cited 
from Hallstatt, from the tumulus of Bois de Langres (Haute- 
Marne), and from Villement (Indre). A decoration composed of 
parallel undulating lines apparently put on with a comb has been 





FIG. 374. SAFETY PINS OF THE HALLSTATT EPOCH, FROM SALINS, JURA. 


The two fibulae in the upper row have a serpentiform arch; those in the lower are 
without spring. After Piroutet. . 


found in the Camp de Chateau at Salins (Jura) and at Court- 
Saint-Etienne, Belgium. 

Painted pottery appeared in Germany with the beginning of 
the Hallstatt Epoch. Most of the painted vases are covered with a 
yellow slip on which geometric figures in black, or red and black, 
are painted (Fig. 371). The figures include the various solar sym- 
bols, triangular and lozenge-shaped patterns, stylistic animal and 
human representations. Fine examples have been found at Buch- 
heim (Baden) and Burrenhof (Wurttemberg). Painted pottery 
dating from the Hallstatt Epoch is exceedingly rare in France. 

Certain ritualistic ceramic decorations from central Europe 
deserve more than a passing notice. They consist of animal or 
human figuration, both in the round and engraved. They rep-. 
resent either sacred animals like the horse, swan, ox, and ram, or 
sacrificial and funeral ceremonies. Some of the best examples have 


246 HUMAN ORIGINS 


come from Oedenburg and Gemeinlebarn (Hungary) and Beckers- 
loh (Bavaria). 

Glass vases made their first appearance in central Europe dur- 
ing the second phase of the Hallstatt Epoch (Fig. 372). ‘Three 
small vertically ribbed glass cups, yellowish-green to brownish- 
green in color, were found in the cemetery at Hallstatt. A frag- 
ment of a squarish flagon, translucid, deep violet with whitish 





FIG. 375. SIGMOID AND NAVICELLA FIBULAE FROM HALLSTATT. 


Scale, ca. 4. After von Sacken. 


bands, has been reported from the tumulus of Belle-Remise near 
Pflugfelden. Similar glass vessels were much more numerous on 
the Mediterranean coast where the art had been transplanted from 
Egypt. Glass vessels were made by hand or with the aid of a 
mold. Glass blowing was unknown until the Imperial Roman 
Epoch. 

Dress and Ornament.—The costume, both male and female, 
during the Hallstatt Epoch seems to have been characterized by 
simplicity. Sword and razor were the usual accompaniments in a 


THE IRON AGE 47 


warrior’s sepulture. In the Lausanne Museum are to be seen 
bronze bracelets with iron inlay dating from the beginning of the 
Iron Age. During the second phase of the Hallstatt Epoch, belts 
and bracelets were much in vogue among the women. Leather 
belts with trappings of stamped metal were highly prized. The 
textile art had developed until light garments of fine weave were 
possible. It seems to have been the custom to envelop the funeral 
offerings in cloth, only vestiges of which remain. 

Keller attempted to reconstruct the female costume from tex- 
tile relics discovered in the tumuli of Dorflingen and Trullikon 
(Fig. 373). It consists of an armless tunic and a mantle fastened 
in front by means of fibulae. 
On the head rests a sort of 
diadem composed of a series 
of radiating hairpins held in 
place by a leather band. A 
broad ornamental belt, neck- 
lace, earrings, bracelets, and Fic. 376. FIBULAE OF THE Anetee EPOCH, 
anklets completed the outfit. FROM SALINS, JURA. _ 


The numerous bracelets This is called the Certosa type of fibula, char- 
acterized by lateral spring, elbow-shaped h, 
and anklets of the second g aped arc 


and recurved terminal button. After Piroutet. 
phase of the Hallstatt Epoch 
were made of various materials—bronze, iron, lignite, and gold. 
Many forms are encountered—solid, open, articulated, hollow, 
ribbed, broad, narrow. By the middle of the Hallstatt Epoch the 
fibula largely displaced the pin in central Europe. 

Fibulae were rare in France and Switzerland, not only during 
the Bronze Age, but also during the first phase of the Hallstatt 
Epoch. Fibulae of this phase are nearly always of bronze. Those 
with unilateral spring are the oldest; then came the type with 
bilateral spring, also types without spring, and with or without 
serpentiform arch (Fig. 374). The arch in the older types is often 
swollen and hollow (fibule a navicella). The clasp varies in length 
and may or may not be provided with a terminal button (Fig. 375). 
A type characteristic of northern Italy during the second phase of 
the Hallstatt Epoch is known as the fibula of La Certosa (the 
name of a necropolis at Bologna). The arch is elbow-shaped and 
the terminal button recurved (Fig. 376). 





248 HUMAN ORIGINS 


The belt became an important adjunct to female apparel during 
the second Hallstatt phase. It was of bronze or of leather with 
geometric ornaments of beaten bronze. These belts were usually 
of ample breadth, sometimes even broad enough to be a good sub- 
stitute for a corset. A large number were found in the cemetery 
at Hallstatt. Many have been unearthed also in France, Switzer- 
land, Germany, and Czechoslovakia. 

Gold was used sparingly during the Hallstatt Epoch, being con- 
fined to small articles such as earrings, pendants, bracelets, etc. 
The goldsmith had learned how to economize and at the same 
time achieve satisfactory results. A remarkable exception to the 
rule is afforded by the golden bowl found near Zurich in 1906 
(Fig. 377), which weighs 910 grammes (ca. 29.2 ounces troy). 
It had been deposited in an inverted position on a flat stone and 
covered by means cf a pottery vessel (also inverted), presumably 
a cache or hoard, since nothing suggesting a grave was found there. 
On the mammillated field one can distinguish four figures of the 
sun and four of the moon (crescent), likewise animal representa- 
tions scarcely determinable. The bowl had apparently to do with 
some ritual. Outside of three or four stations near the eastern 
frontier, very few specimens have been found in France. 

Commerce in amber from the Baltic attained considerable pro- 
portions during the first Hallstatt phase. Thousands of amber 
beads were found at Hallstatt. They occurred in more than three 
hundred sepultures and were apparently owned by the poor as well 
as by the rich. The principal amber route of the time was be- 
tween the Baltic and the Adriatic. 

Coral, like amber, was supposed to have marvelous qualities. 
It was believed to have medicinal as well as talismanic power. Its 
color sufficed to make it popular as an ornament. Frequently em- 
ployed in central Europe, it made its first appearance in France 
only toward the close of the Hallstatt Epoch. An interesting neck- 
lace in nine parallel rows of coral stems perforated lengthwise and 
supported by crossbars of ivory was found in a Hallstatt tumulus 
of the second phase at Kaltbrunn in the Grand Duchy of Baden. 
Ivory does not seem to have been much in vogue during the epoch. 
The only glass beads known in central Europe during the Bronze 
Age were importations from the south. They are found in greater 


THE IRON AGE 249 


number and variety during the Iron Age, especially during the 
second Hallstatt phase. 


* 


gg BE HORE RS 
ge PRERR A AHS 
AO EH Hg RS 


& 


po ee ERTS, gy PREM RRM Pe gg. 9 
oe eet BREE SYS” : AAS eae @ OO we j 


? 





Fic. 377. GOLDEN RITUAL BOWL OF THE HALLSTATT EPOCH FOUND NEAR ZURICH, 
SWITZERLAND. 


This beautiful vessel had probably been cached, for when found it was in an inverted 
position on a flat stone and covered with an inverted pottery vessel. On the mammil- 
lated field one can distinguish four figures of the sun and four of the moon (crescent), also 
animal representations. Scale, ca. 3. Photograph by Viollier. 


Symbols associated with sun worship were employed as decora- 
tive features on articles of apparel or personal adornment through- 
out the Iron Age. They include various representations of the 


250 HUMAN ORIGINS 


sun’s disk, the crescent, swan, horse, etc. The Antiquarium of 
Munich possesses two fine gold pendants from Vulci, Etruria, each 
of which bears a mammilated figure of the sun and the moon. The 
same symbols are seen on the golden bowl of Zurich (see Fig. 377). 
Sun amulets are frequently met with on belts and belt buckles. 


THE Epocu oF LA TENE 


The second epoch of the Iron Age covered a period of some 
five hundred years, ending with the beginning of the Christian 
Era. Three phases of this epoch (early, middle, and late) were 
first recognized by O. Tischler in 1885; they were later rechristened 
by S. Reinach as follows: 


La TENE I. 500-300 B.C. 
LA TENE Il. 300-100 B:@) 
LA TENE III. too B.C.—Christian Era. 


The type station of the epoch, La Tene, 1s) situated atane 
eastern end of Lake Neuchatel and on the south bank of the river 
Thielle; in it the last two phases of the epoch are tepresente: 
La Tene was chosen for the type station as early as 1774 by Hilde- 
brand because of the nature and importance of the finds made there 
by Schwab and Desor. 

In 1858, when explorations were begun at La Teéne by Colonel 
Schwab, the site was entirely covered by the waters of Lake 
Neuchatel. Important engineering: works carried on from 1868 
to 1881 resulted in the lowering of the water level of the lake 
by 2 meters (6.56 feet). This brought the site above water level 
and facilitated the excavations undertaken by Emile Vouga who 
uncovered the piles of numerous buildings and of a bridge across 
the Thielle which drains Lake Neuchatel. Continuing his excava- 
tions along the river, Vouga found piles of a second bridge (the 
bridges are named for Vouga and Desor) and of other buildings. 
The station has yielded a rich harvest to a number of explorers, 
including F. Schwab, E. Desor, V. Gross, F. Borel, W. Wavre, 
and Emile and Paul Vouga (father and son). Paul Vouga esti- 
mates that some 2,600 objects from this site have found their way 


THE IRON AGE Zo 


into various public museums. The principal collections from La 
Tene are to be found in the museums at Neuchatel, Zurich, Berne, 
Geneva, and Bienne. They belong, for the most part, to the second 
phase of the epoch and include many weapons both offensive and 
defensive. The prevalence of these weapons, the strategic position 
of the place, the absence of evidence suggesting a place of manu- 
facture, as well as the absence of female apparel and of objects 
pertaining to family life, have led Paul Vouga+to the conclusion 
that La Téne was a fortified emporium (entrepdt) occupied by 
the military. 

The beginning of the second phase of the epoch of La Tene 
witnessed an important step forward, the use of money as a medium 
of exchange, borrowed from Greece and Rome. Another valuable 
aid to commerce was the gradual development of overland routes. 
These were factors that contributed largely toward making possible 
a uniform culture over a relatively vast territory stretching from 
Gaul by way of Bavaria and Bohemia to Hungary. 

Halbitations.—During the first and second phases of the Epoch 
of La Tene, dwellings were about as simple as the Neolithic huts. 
The ground plan was either round or rectangular. Paul du Chatel- 
lier has described an oppidum of La Tene I at Tronoén in Finisteére, 
Miicumeoversean area of 25 hectares (61.8 acres). There were 
many cabin pits, both Gallic and Roman. The Gallic pits were 
rectangular, with an average length of 5 or 6 meters (16.4 to 
19.7 feet). The substructure was of rough stones, the superstruc- 
ture of branches covered by clay. Nearly all contained swords, 
lances, and daggers of iron. 

The third phase of the Epoch of La Tene witnessed a consid- 
erable development in the direction of urban life. Fortifications 
were no longer simple places of refuge, but were real centers of 
commerce and population. Such were Alesia, Mount Beuvray, and 
Gergovia in Gaul, and Stradonitz in Czechoslovakia. 

On Mount Beuvray, 27 kilometers (16.8 miles) from Autun 
(Sadne-et-Loire) and at a height of 822 meters (2,698.9 feet) 
above the sea, there was a city covering an area of 135 hectares 
(333.45 acres). It was protected by a powerful rampart. It be- 
longs wholly to the third phase of La Téne and was not abandoned 
until the year 5 B.C. The dwellings, built of wood and dry 


Sy F2 HUMAN ORIGINS 


masonry, were all rectangular in ground plan. The corners of the 
walls were of cut granite. For the most part the dwellings were 
about half underground, the descent being by an inside stairway 
of several steps. The roofs were as a rule thatched, although 
Roman tile had already made its appearance. Many of the dwell- 
ings consisted of but a single room. There were, however, elabo- 
rate houses containing from several to as many as thirty rooms 
surrounding a central rectangular atrium in Pompeian fashion. 

Coins have been found in large numbers at Mount Beuvray. 
One is impressed by the variety of types, which indicates that 
there was no uniform system of coinage among the Gauls. Gallic 
coins predominate, but there also occur Celtiberian, Mauritanian, 
and Roman coins, as well as Greek coins from Marseilles. 

The fortified industrial city of Gergovia (Puy-de Dome) is on 
Mount Gergovia at an elevation of 744 meters (2,442.8 feet) 
and 6 kilometers (3.75 miles) south of Clermont-Ferrand. It has 
never been thoroughly explored. The relics resemble those found 
at Mount Beuvray—deébris of amphorae brought from Italy by way 
of Marseilles, pottery of other kinds, ingots of bronze, Gallic 
coins, etc. 

Alesia, where Vercingetorix succumbed to the Roman legions, 
occupies the summit of Mount Auxois (Cote d’Or). It was pro- 
tected by rocky escarpments, supplemented in places by a wall of 
dry masonry. The huts were built in part on a circular, and in 
part on a rectangular, ground plan. In some cases there was a 
substructure of dry masonry as at Mount Beuvray. The two 
strongholds were contemporary. 

The richest among oppida of La Téne III is Stradonitz, 32 
kilometers (20 miles) southwest of Prague in Czechoslovakia. 
It covered an area of 140 hectares (345.8 acres). The dwellings 
were of wood, the floors of beaten clay somewhat reddened in 
part by fire. Some twenty thousand relics have been found at 
Stradonitz, including many Gallic coins in gold, bronze, and silver, 
fibulae of gold, bronze, and iron, bracelets, beads, painted vases, 
enameled bronzes, weapons, tools, etc. There are several stations 
that form a connecting chain between Mount Beuvray and Strado- 
nitz, the principal ones being Manching, near Ingolstadt, and Karl- 
stein, near Reichenhall, both in Upper Bavaria. One of the best 


THE IRON AGE 253 


known stations in Hungary is Velem St. Veit (Steinamanger), 
which was inhabited not only during the phase of La Tene III, 
but also during the Bronze Age. 

In the British Isles the Epoch of La Tene is represented by 
oppida as well as by pile villages. A good example of the latter 
is Glastonbury (Somerset). This village, surrounded by a palisade, 
was built in a swamp on an artificial island; it consisted of about 
seventy dwellings, oval to circular in ground plan. The site has 
been thoroughly explored by Bulleid, who found very few weapons. 
The objects recovered include pottery with incised decoration, 
spits, fibulae, weavers’ combs and other objects made of bone, a 
wooden vessel artistically decorated, an oak table in the shape of 
a toadstool, beads of glass and amber, a bronze mirror, a vase, 
and tweezers. The finds indicate that Glastonbury was occupied 
chiefly during the third phase of the Epoch of La Tene. The round 
towers of Scotland known locally as brochs were built during the 
Epoch of La Tene. 

W capons.—The sword was the offensive weapon par excellence, 
as it had been during the Epoch of Hallstatt. The sword of La 
Téne I differed in no essential way from the short sword of the 
second Hallstatt phase, some of the finest specimens coming from 
the middle Rhine district. The antennae gradually disappeared. 
The scabbards are of iron with an external marginal trimming of 
bronze. The short sword disappeared during the second and third 
phases of La Tene. Swords were attached to the belt by means 
of a suspension buckle, and in sepultures they occur for the most 
part on the right side of the skeleton. 

La Téne swords testify to a high degree of technical skill. The 
makers apparently knew how to produce a body of hard iron with 
edges of soft iron, so that, when dulled or injured, the edges could 
be repaired easily by hammering. The scabbards especially, begin- 
ning with La Tene II, are attractively engraved, the sigmoid and 
triskele being among the dominant patterns. Animal figures are 
rare and fantastic. 

Swords are found ia practically all the necropoli of La Tene 
in France. The museum at Saint-Germain possesses a hundred 
swords from the department of the Marne alone. La Teéne swords 
from the British Isles present certain original characteristics, begin- 


254 HUMAN ORIGINS 


ning with the second phase of the epoch. The scabbards, gen- 
erally of bronze, are richly ornamented. This phase is well 
represented at Lisnacroghera, County Antrim (Ireland), and at 
Hunsbury (Northampton). A sword with a single edge is common 
in northeastern Germany. <A different type of sword with single 
edge, presumably of Greek origin, is found in Spain. Several ex- 
amples associated with Greek vases 
were discovered by L. Siret in the 
necropolis of Villaricos (Almeria ). 
The dagger of La Tene was 
derived from the Hallstatt dagger 
with antennae. Toward the close 
of the Epoch of La Tene the hilt 
of this dagger underwent a curious 
transformation. The terminal 
spheroidal lump between the an- 
tennae was transformed into a 
human head; forthwith the an- 
tennae became human arms, and . 
the hilt a human body and legs 
(Fig. 378). Examples of human 
effigy dagger hilts have been 
iG. ay8s STHON DACGERARITE anes al OL ae British Isles, France, 
EFFIGY HILT, FROM NEUCHATEL, Switzerland, and Italy. 
Pee ernie tan Throughout the Epoch of La 
Np eat a Tene the sword had two companion 
pieces in the lance and the javelin 
(Fig. 379). The two differ chiefly in point of size; the larger does 
not leave the hand, the smaller is thrown. During La Tene I the 
lances recall the Hallstatt types with their points resembling a 
willow leaf. With La Tene II appeared new forms with notched 
or undulating (flamboyant) points, sometimes with openwork. 
Ornamented lances occur primarily in three regions, Switzerland 
and Hungary (La Tene II) and northeastern Germany (La Tene 
III). In the region of the Pyrenees javelins have been found in 
which shaft and point are forged together froma single piece of iron. 
The barbed arrow was not in common use during the Epoch 
of La Tene. The bow might have had a wider use than the arrow 





THE IRON AGE JES 


since it could have been employed in throwing the javelin. Arrows 
of iron are for the most part of the socketed type. 


Remains of helmets, 
breastplates, and shields 
Sroetare, Their: rarity 
during the Epoch of La 
Tene is accounted for in 
part by the perishable 
nature of the material 
of which they were 
made. The Gallic shield 
represented in a_ stone 
statue found in 1834 at 
Mondragon (Vaucluse) 
was certainly made of 
woolcehecently a 
wooden shield was 
found in the station of 
La Tene. In some cases 
only the umbone is of 
metal; examples of this 
sort are frequently met 
with in La Teéne sepul- 
tures. 

Helmets and Shields. 
—With the possible ex- 
ception of the shield, 
defensive armor was 
rare during the Epoch 
of La Tene. The Gallic 
helmet is known through 
the discovery of only a 
small number of actual 
specimens and through 
representations on cer- 
tain ancient monuments. 





Fic. 379. LANCE HEAD OF THE EPOCH OF LA TENE 
FOUND IN THE BED OF THE THIELLE, NEAR 
NEUCHATEL, SWITZERLAND. 

The lance is engraved with swastikas, the symbol of 


movement. Scale, ca. 7%. 


Warriors wearing horned helmets are sculptured on the monument 
built by Julius Caesar at Saint-Rémy and on the triumphal arch at 


256 HUMAN ORIGINS 


Orange; some of these representations are surmounted by the wheel, 
symbolic of the sun’s disk. The wheel is often found on Italian 
helmets of the Villanovan Epoch. 3 
The horned helmet is found among various peoples of antiquity 
—Assyrians, Babylonians, Greeks, Italians. One of the rare ex- 
amples occurring north of the Alps is the bronze helmet found in 
the bed of the Thames, near the Waterloo Bridge, London, 
in 1868; it is composed of several thin sheets of hammered bronze, 





Fic. 380. HELMET OF HAMMERED BRONZE BELONGING TO THE EPOCH OF LA TENE. 


This rare example was found in the Thames near the Waterloo Bridge, London, in 
1868. Photograph from the British Museum. 


held together by means of rivets. The horns are straight, conical, 
and divergent (Fig. 380). 

Beginning with the fifth century B.C. one finds Italian helmets 
imitated by Celtic workmen, who adapted the classic decorations 
to.the Celtic taste, as well as the form, for their helmets are more 
pointed at the top. The ornamentation is often exceedingly artis- 
tic, consisting of triskeles, sigmoid patterns, stylistic palmettes, and 
geometric tracery. A magnificent Gallic example, dating from 
La Tene I, was found in 1861, in an ancient arm of the Seine at 
Amfreville (Eure), and is now preserved in the Louvre. It is of 


THE IRON AGE Zot 


gilded bronze and seems also to have been enameled (Fig. 381). 
Other less sumptuous Gallic helmets derived from Italian proto- 
types have been found in the department of the Marne at Berru, 
Cuperly, and La Gorge-Meillet. 

If the Gauls made use of the shield during La Tene I, they 
must have employed wood or leather without metal mounting. A 
wooden shield was discovered by Vouga in 1910 at the type station 
of La Tene. With it were a spear sword, the skeleton of a war- 





Fic. 381. HELMET OF THE EPOCH OF LA TENE FROM AMFREVILLE-SOUS-LES-MONTS, 
EURE, FRANCE. 


This is a splendid example of a gilded bronze helmet dating from La Téne I. Original 
in the Louvre. Photograph from the Museum at Saint-Germain. 


rior, and the remains of his chariot, including a well preserved 
wooden yoke (Fig. 382). Beginning with La Tene H, umbones 
of shields are frequently met with, not only in the Marne region 
but also in other parts of France and neighboring countries. 

La Tene III is characterized by the disappearance of the semi- 
cylindrical type and the persistence of the ellipsoidal type of shield; 
two fine examples of the latter are to be seen in the British Museum. 
The older of the two, found in the Witham River, is ornamented 
with coral. The umbone in repoussé forms the central portion of 
a longitudinal armature. Surrounding the umbone on three sides 





Fic. 382. PIECES OF WOODEN HARNESS FROM THE TYPE STATION OF LA TENE, LAKE 
NEUCHATEL, SWITZERLAND. 


Nos. 1, 1a, large wooden yoke for oxen; No. 2, small wooden yoke probably for horses; 
No. 3, half a pack saddle; Nos. 4-6, parts of pack saddles. Scale, No. 1, ca. zz; No. 2, ca. 
qo; others, ca. 3. After P. Vouga. 


THE IRON AGE 259 


is a piece of metal appliqué representing a wild boar, a Gallic 
tribal emblem. The second example, found in the Thames at Bat- 


retsea london ) «in 
1855, is ornamented with 
twenty-seven buttons of 
red enamel attached by 
rivets through the center 
and by ornamental 
bronze stays which are 
embedded in the enamel 
but do not pass through 
ome bt 353.) Here 
the ribs connecting the 
terminal disks with the 
umbone are nearly elimi- 
nated. The entire length 
of the shield is 35.5 cen- 
timeters (14 inches) less 
than the Witham ex- 
ample. 

La Tene warriors 
laid much stress on mili- 
tary insignia. They 
marched to combat ac- 
companied by symbolic 
figures mounted on poles, 
the wheel and the wild 
boar being their favorite 
symbols. Contrary to 
the general belief, the 
cock was not a national 
Gallic symbol. There is 
nothing in text or on 
monument to support its 
claim. On the other 
hand, the figure of the 
wild boar often recurs— 





Fic. 383. SHIELD OF ENAMELED BRONZE OF THE 
EPOCH OF LA TENE, FOUND IN THE THAMES AT 
BATTERSEA, LONDON. 


The shield is about 80 centimeters (31 inches) long. 
Photograph from the British Museum. 


on bas-reliefs at Orange, on a frieze at Narbonne, and on 


260 HUMAN ORIGINS 


the shield from Witham just noted. The wild boar surmounts 
the warrior helmets on the vase of Gundestrup (Figs. 384-386) ; it 
also appears among amulets and coins of the time. 

Valor likewise found support in the war whoop, the beating of 
lances against shields, and the blowing of trumpets. The trumpet 
known in the texts as carmyx is represented in Gallo-Roman, 
Roman, and Greek sculpture, as well as on coins. A bronze male 



























































Fic. 384. SILVER CAULDRON OR VASE FOUND IN A PEAT BOG AT GUNDESTRUP, 
JUTLAND. EPOCH OF LA TENE. 


Of the eight outer plaques, four carry the male bust as a central figure and four the 
female bust (one of which is lost). There are five upright inner plaques (see Fig. 385) and 
one round plaque covering the bottom (see Fig. 386). Scale, ca. $. After Miller. 


figurine from Stradonitz holds in his right hand the carnyz; it like- 
wise appears on the vase from Gundestrup. 

Tools and Utensils——The ax served a double purpose, being a 
weapon as well as a tool. Warriors represented on a bronze situla 
from La Certosa (Bologna) carry axes as weapons; the same is 
true of the ornamented belt from Watsch (Carniola). Iron axes 


with sockets parallel with the blade make their appearance during 


the second epoch of the Iron Age. Some of these are presumably 





eS eee Fe 


THE IRON AGE 261 


weapons. Winged axes (of iron) and axes with end sockets not 
unlike those of the Bronze Age and the Hallstatt Epoch continue 
to be used. 





Fic. 385. Two OF THE INNER PLAQUES OF THE GUNDESTRUP SILVER VASE. 


The upper plaque shows the Gallic god Cerunnus seated, holding in his right hand a 
torque, while his left grasps the neck of a serpent. On his immediate right there is a stag, 
and on his left a wolf, animals which played an important réle in the religious beliefs of the 
time. The lower plaque shows two processions, one on horseback and one on foot. 
After Miller. ; 


The big iron knife with but a single edge also served a double 
purpose: it was useful alike as weapon and as utensil. Examples 
have been found in several chariot tombs of the Marne and in 
tombs of La Tene I in other parts of France, in central Europe, 
and in Italy. Smaller knives likewise occur in tombs of La Tene: 
I. A knife was buried with every man, woman, and child in the 


262 HUMAN ORIGINS 


necropolis of Chalons-sur-Marne (Marne). During the second 
and third phases of the second epoch of Iron, knives were widely 
used, some of them differing but slightly from types still in use. 
Fishing was an important industry as indicated by the presence of 
fishhooks, harpoons, and tridents (Fig. 387). 

Anvils and hammers of iron belonging to the Epoch of La Téne 
do not differ materially in shape from those still in use (Fig. 388) ; 
this is true also of chisels, paring knives, awls, gouges, saws, and 
picks. Compasses make their appearance, a pair having been found 
in the tumulus of Celles near Neussargues (Cantal). A foundry 





Fic. 386. ONE OF THE OUTER AND THE CENTRAL INNER PLAQUE OF THE GUNDESTRUP 
VASE. 


That on the left is an exterior plaque with a female deity as the principal figure. Over 
her right shoulder can be seen a figure, probably representing Hercules fighting the lion. 
The plaque on the right, from the bottom of the vase, depicts the hunting of the bull. 
After Miller. 


site dating from La Tene III at Szalacska, near Kaposvar, Hun- 
gary, was explored in 1906. An inventory of the objects recov- 
ered there includes a pair of forceps. A plane of the type still 
in use by coopers and carriage makers dates from La Tene III. 
It consists of a one-edged blade slightly bowed and terminating in 
a pair of handles, each handle parallel with the other. Examples 
have been reported from Dun-le-Roi (Cher), Celles (Cantal), and 
Idria near Baca. 

With the increase of wealth and means of accumulating it, the 
need of locks and keys became acute. If such means of security 
existed prior to La Tene III, and in all probability they did, they 


THE IRON AGE 263 





Fic. 387. FISHING AND HUNTING IMPLEMENTS OF IRON AND BRONZE FROM LAKES 
NEUCHATEL, ZURICH, AND BIENNE, SWITZERLAND. 


Nos. 1-12, fishhooks; Nos. 13, 14, harpoons; No. 15, trident; Nos. 16-22, boat hooks; 
No. 23, boar spear. Scale, ca. 7. After Vouga. 


were probably simple wooden devices that have long since decayed 
leaving no trace. The iron key was in common use north of the 
Alps during the last one hundred years before Christ. The stations 


264 HUMAN ORIGINS 


where iron keys have been found include: oppidum of Mount 
Caburn, near Lowes, England; Boviolles and Saint-Pierre-en- 
Chastre (Oise); Mount Beuvray (Saone-et-Loire) ; Pommiers 
(Aisne) ; and Stradonitz (Bohemia). There are three well defined 
types: the simplest is a bent bar of iron, the so-called temple key; 
the second is in the form of the letter T; the third is a bent bar 
of iron provided with a variable number of teeth near the end 
opposite the handle. 

Dice and other games were played during the Epoch of La 
Téne. They have been found in the type station of La Tene. 
An example found in the tumulus of Magny-Lambert dates from 





Fic. 388. IRON FORGE FROM THE BERNESE JURA. EPOCH OF LA TENE. 


Photograph by Tschumi. 


the first phase of La Tene. The dice are made of bronze, of bone, 
or of stone, and are marked with concentric circles. A large 
number of dice were found at Stradonitz in Bohemia. The disks 
cut from potsherds, found so plentifully in sepultures of La Tene 
III, are supposed to have been employed in games. 

Andirons of iron made their appearance during the Hallstatt 
Epoch. Rare during the first and second phases of La Tene, 
they seem to have been more in use during the final phase (Fig. 
389). Déchelette mentions two kinds, the andiron of clay and the 
andiron of hammered iron. The pottery andirons are ornaménted 
practically without exception with ram heads—emblem of sacrifice. 
Other hearth utensils include pokers, pothangers, spits, cauldrons, 
and large cauldron forks. 

The Gauls obtained not only their wines from south of the 


THE IRON AGE 265 


Alps, but also their best metal pitchers, buckets, pots, saucepans, 
drinking cups, vases, etc. There were Celtic imitations but they 
were never so good as the Greco-Italian originals. Bronze wno- 
choés (pitchers) are particularly abundant both in Gaul and south- 
ern Germany. 

Among agricultural implements the most important are the plow, 
the scythe, sickle, and a species of hooked knife (Fig. 390). Iron 
plowshares dating from the first phase of La Téne are rare. The old 
plow of hard wood must have been an effective implement to have 
held its place so long in the esteem of the cultivators of the soil. 
Scythes and sickles were prototypes of those still in use. Hand- 





Fic. 389. ANDIRON OF IRON FROM ZIHL, SWITZERLAND. EPOCH OF LA TENE. _ 


Photograph by Tschumi. 


mills with circular rotating milling stones first came into use during 
the Epoch of La Tene. The first Celtic models were adaptations 
from the handmills perfected south of the Alps. The third phase 
of the epoch is especially represented by circular milling stones. 
They have been found at the type station of La Téne, Murcens 
(Lot), Mount Beuvray (Saone-et-Loire), Celles (Cantal), Varim- 
pré (Seine-Inférieure), and Hunsbury (Northampton). The cus- 
tom of depositing milling stones in sepultures dates from the 
Neolithic Period (Fig. 391). 

Pottery.—The ceramic art of the Epoch of La Tene received 
an impetus from southern examples both in metal and in clay. 
Another factor in its development was the introduction of the 
potter's wheel, unknown north of the Alps prior to La Tene I. 
The wheel had been employed by A*gean potters since the early 
Bronze Age. By the third phase of La Tene it was known through- 
out the Celtic world. 





Fic. 390. AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS FROM NEUCHATEL, ZURICH, AND BERLIN. 
EPOCH OF LA TENE. 


No. 1, sickle; Nos. 2, 3, scythes; No. 4, pruning knife; Nos. 5, 6, 7, pruning hooks. 
Scale, Nos. 1, 4, 5, 6, ca. 70; Nos, 2, 3,603; No. 7,ca,% After Vouga, 


THE IRON AGE 267 


The pottery forms are many, the decoration largely geometric, 
the designs both incised and painted, the lines for the most part 
curvilinear (Fig. 392). Zones are sometimes filled in by a frieze 
of animal figures. The pottery of La Téne III is remarkably 
homogeneous. The vases made of fine paste were turned on the 
wheel, Those for common use were of coarser paste and were 
still made by hand. The paste was gray, black, brown, or reddish. 
The painted designs occupied a broad zone. The paste of painted 
pottery is hard and homogeneous; 
globular bowls were among the 
favorite forms (Figs. 393 and 394). 

A curious development in the 
line of plastic decoration is to be 
noted in the so-called face urns 
(Gesichtsurnen), with relatively 
ample equatorial dimensions and the 
human visage partly in relief near 
the brim. Face urns are found prin- 
cipally in Posen, Pomerania, and 





aes 5: Fic. 391. STONE HANDMILL FROM 
Silesia. THE TUMULUS OF CELLES. EPOCH 


OF LA TENE. 


Money.—Greek coins were in- . 
After Pages-Allary. 


troduced into Gaul by way of 
Marseilles. At Auriol, near Marseilles, a cache of 2,130 silver 
coins was found in 1867. They are archaic Greek in style and 
anepigraphic. Similar caches of small coins have been found at 
Volterra in Etruria, at Velia in Lucania, and on the Spanish coast. 
Local imitations of eastern Mediterranean models were fairly faith- 
ful at first but underwent progressive degeneration in time. The 
result is that the more recent Celtic coinages are more barbaric 
in appearance than the earlier. A striking instance of this is seen 
in the imitation of coins from Thasos by the Celts of the lower 
Danube, published by Forrer. Marseilles coins were soon copied 
by the Celts of the Rhone valley and southeastern Gaul. On one 
series the lion figures, on another the bull. 

The so-called Regenbogenschusselchen, abundant in Bohemia, 
southern Germany, and Switzerland are to be reckoned among the 
most barbaric moneys employed by the Celtic and Germano-Celtic 
tribes. They are cup-shaped pieces made of gold or electrum 


268 HUMAN ORIGINS 


(an alloy of gold and silver), either plain or marked by some rudi- 
mentary symbol. 

According to Déchelette, gods are seldom, if ever, represented 
on Gallic coins. The prototypes of all these coins, whether of 
bronze, gold, or silver, came from centers of Greek culture. After 
the Romans had established themselves in southern France about 
20 B.C., the Gauls began to take for models the silver coins 
struck at Rome. The most important series is the one known as 
“cavalryman.” , 

Greek and Latin inscriptions are often found on Gallic coins, 











Fia. 392. PAINTED CLAY VESSELS OF THE EPOCH OF LA TENE I. 


The two small vessels are from Beine (Marne), France; the large one is from Prunay 
(Marne). 


especially on those of the last 100 years B.C. Gallic coins are never 
found in sepultures of La Tene I. 

Dress and Ornament.—All that is known of La Téne clothing 
has been gathered from texts and from representations of bar- 
barians in antique art. According to Diodorus of Sicily, the Gauls 
wore a tunic and trousers, also a mantle or cloak (sagum). The 
garments were of many colors; the richer ones were brocaded or 
embroidered in gold. Barbaric warriors were represented by Greek 
artists as going to combat nude except for the mantle. 

Taste for articles of adornment was gratified in many ways. 
The men were fond of richly ornamented weapons, in addition 
to such personal ornaments as bracelets and rings. Beads, bracelets, 


THE IRON AGE 269 


belts, earrings, and pendants were worn by the women. ‘The prin- 
cipal elements entering into articles of adornment were bronze, 
red enamel, and coral. 

La Téne was the epoch par excellence of the fibula, generally 
of bronze or iron, rarely of gold. The pin, spring, and arch of 
the fibula were made of a single piece of wire. ‘he head of the 
arch is next to the spring; 
to its foot the clasp is at- 
tached. The spring is al- 
Weys bilateral. In the 
classification of fibulae 
much stress is laid on the 
foot, or rather the recurved 
appendage extending be- 
yond the clasp. Already in 
the first phase it may be 
developed enough to touch 
the arch; with the second 
phase it not only touches 
but is actually fastened to 
the arch by means of a 
ring; finally, during the 
third phase appendage and 
paeieare of One piece 
(Figs. 395 and 396). The gy, 393. PAINTED CLAY VESSEL FROM THE 
ring in vogue during the NECROPOLIS OF HAULZY. 
second phase is either This vase illustrates the geometric design so 

widely used in La Téne III. After Goury. 
wholly suppressed or else 
retained as a rudiment for the purpose of ornamentation. 

A torque is a rigid metallic necklace, twisted or not as the 
case may be. It appeared first in the Bronze Age but was in much 
greater favor during the Epoch of La Téne. It was worn by both 
sexes, by warriors presumably as a mark of honor. The dying 
Gaul in the Capitoline Museum at Rome wears one; it is also seen 
on Gallic coins in which the busts of warriors figure. But it does 
not seem to have been worn by warriors prior to the third century 
B.C., the date when it ceased to be worn by women. The torques 
worn by women were of bronze or gold, rarely of iron (Fig. 397). 








Fic. 394. LA TENE POTTERY OF THE THIRD PHASE, CHIEFLY FROM THE MARNE. 


Morel collection, British Museum. Photograph from the British Museum. 


THE IRON AGE 271 


Belts, like torques, were inherited from the Bronze Age. Dur- 
ing the first phase at least of the Epoch of La Téne, warriors wore 
belts of leather or cloth fastened by a bronze clasp. The openwork 
of the clasp is derived from the Greek palmette and often takes 
on stylistic animal forms. A character common to La Téne belt 
buckles, and distinguishing them from those of earlier epochs, is 
that they are always of cast instead of hammered bronze. 

The second phase of La Tene witnessed a departure in the 
matter of female belts—the chain belt of cast bronze. ‘There are 
many varieties, susceptible, however, of being grouped under two 
heads: (1) chains composed almost exclusively of circular rings; 





Fic. 395. BRONZE FIBULAE DATING FROM LA TENE II. 


No. 1, from Vevey, Switzerland; No. 2, from Dtthren, Baden, Germany; No. 3, from 
Sommesous (Marne), France; No. 4, from Sweden. Scale,4. After Déchelette. 


(2) those in which the rings alternate with oblong decorated bars. 
The chain belt is provided with an attractive pendant. The belts 
were evidently worn low, prototype of the present fashion, for 
they are found at the level of the pelvic bones (Fig. 398). 
Bracelets were highly esteemed by the women of La Tene, 
especially during the first and second phases. The men rarely wore 
either bracelets or torques. Nearly all the bracelets are of bronze. 
They as well as the torques are sometimes ornamented with red 
enamel (Fig. 399). A small percentage are of iron, and only a 
very few of gold or silver. Lignite, schist, and jet were used 
sparingly in the manufacture of bracelets. Déchelette describes 
nine different varieties dating from the first and second phases. 
Some are closed in one piece; some are open; others are open but 
provided with means of fastening the two ends together. 
Attractive glass bracelets have been found in La Téne sepul- 
tures of Switzerland. Some were colored yellow by means of sul- 


272 HUMAN ORIGINS 


phur, others dark blue by means of cobalt. A sepulture at Frauen- 
feld (Langdorf) contained a bronze chain belt with triple pendant, 
two bronze fibulae with bilateral springs, a spiral bracelet of bronze, 
and two bracelets of yellow glass. Tomb No. 2 from the same 
cemetery contained a belt similar to the above, two iron fibulae, and 
a bracelet of yellow glass. Tomb No. 1 at Frauenfeld contained 
a gold coin, three bronze fibulae, fragment of a bronze bracelet, two 
amber beads, and a bracelet of cobalt glass. 

Finger rings were much worn throughout the Epoch of La 
Téne. Most of them are of bronze but gold, iron, and silver were 
also employed in their manufacture. Women wore them by pref- 
erence on the right hand, sometimes on both hands. ‘They are 





Fic. 396. BRONZE FIBULAE DATING FROM LA TENE III. 


Nos. 1 and 2, from Stradonitz; No. 3, from Carinthia; No. 4, from Carthage. Scale, 
2. After Déchelette. 


occasionally found in sepultures of men of rank. Swiss sepultures 
have yielded most of the finger rings, those at Munsingen being 
particularly rich. It was in Switzerland that the ring with setting 
first made its appearance (third phase). 

The earrings have all been found in the sepultures of females. 
They were made of bronze as well as of gold. The crescent-shaped 
earring of La Tene is not unlike a similar type dating from the 
Hallstatt Epoch. 

Toilet utensils dating from the Epoch of La Tene, assembled 
in trusses as well as singly, have been found in many sepultures. 
The toilet truss was already in favor during the Hallstatt Epoch. 
Tweezers for pulling hair and scratchers were more in use than 
was the curette for ears and nails. They were made either of 
bronze or iron and. occur in the graves of both men and women. 
Certain curious bronze spoons, shallow, with short handles, found 


THE IRON AGE 243 








Fic. 397. ORNAMENTS OF LA TENE I FROM AN INCINERATION BURIAL AT HAULZY, 
MARNE, FRANCE. 


No. 1, torque; No. 2, fibula; No. 3, ring; Nos. 4, 5, 6, bracelets. After Goury. 


both in the British Isles and on the Continent, are supposed to have 
been employed by women in the preparation of paints or pomades. 

La Téne razors were no longer made of bronze but of iron. 
Their frequent association with the sword proves that warriors 


274 HUMAN ORIGINS 


shaved at least a part of the face. Diodorus of Sicily speaks of 
Gauls with shaven cheeks but with long, drooping mustaches. The 
razors of the epoch are easily distinguishable from the knives by 
their shortness and the greater curvature of their blades. 

An invention of no mean importance must be credited to the 
culture of La Tene. Scissors made their appearance for the first 
time during this epoch. They are the prototype of the sheep shears 
still in use—a bar of iron terminating at each end in a blade, and 

bent so as to bring the 
edges of the two blades 
together and hold them in 
position under pressure. 
One of the earliest Gallic 
examples is that found in 
a male sepulture at Mont- 
fercaut (Marne), asso- 
‘ ciated with an umbone 
typical, of Ila lengua 
Examples dating from La 
Téne I have been found 
in sepultures of three 
warriors at Montefortino 
near Ancona. In southern 
Germany they are often 





Fic. 398. WoOMAN’S BELT OF BRONZE, DATING : 
FROM LA TENE II. associated with razors in 


From the cemetery at Vevey, Switzerland. After sepultures of Lar Tener 
aes Early explorations at La 
Téne yielded a dozen pairs of scissors belonging to the third phase 
(Fig. 400). Scissors were evidently used primarily for cutting 
hair and beard as well as cloth. 

With the exception of Stradonitz, bronze combs are very rare 
during the Iron Age. The scarcity of combs in the sepultures of 
the Hallstatt and La Téne Epochs is accounted for by assuming that 
wood was used largely in their manufacture. Combs for the hair 
are not to be confounded with a somewhat similar implement used 
by weavers. The bone and ivory combs found at Montefortino 
had two rows of teeth; the rule, however, was a single row. The 
back was often decorated with incised patterns or openwork. A 


THE IRON AGE 223 


fine collection of weavers’ combs made of horn and bone was found 
in the pile village of Glastonbury. 

The mirror was but little used in central and western Europe 
before the third phase of La Tene, although it was known in 
Greece and Egypt as early as the Bronze Age. The few mirrors 
of La Tene I and IJ found north of the Alps were importations 





Fic. 399. BRONZE ORNAMENTS FROM ANDELFINGEN, NEAR ZURICH, SWITZERLAND. 
EPOCH OF LA TENE. 


The torque and one of the bracelets are decorated with red enamel. Photograph by 
Viollier. 


from the south, but by the close of the Iron Age, fine examples 
were being manufactured as far away as the British Isles. In the 
time of Pliny, Brindisi was an important center for the manufac- 
ture of the best quality of bronze mirrors. 

Religion and Art.—La Téne amulets are many and varied. 
Some are survivals from preceding epochs; others appear for the 
first time north of the Alps. Perforated teeth of animals and even 


276 HUMAN ORIGINS 





Fic. 400. SCISSORS AND RAZORS FOUND AT THE TYPE STATION OF LA TENE. 


Nos. 1-3, scissors; Nos. 4-6, combinations of scissors and razors originally enclosed 
in a toilet case; Nos. 7-13, razors. Scale, 1. After Vouga. 


of man were worn alike by Paleolithic hunters and Neolithic herds- 
men; so also were perforated shells. During the Iron Age there 
was a much wider range of materials to select from, including 


THE IRON AGE 277 


metal, glass, coral, etc. Teeth, bone, and shells were therefore 
used sparingly. Instead of a necklace composed wholly of teeth, 
or of teeth and shells, the necklace of La Téne is composed of 
divers elements. A necklace found in one of the tombs at Varilles 
(Marne) was made up of one hundred coral beads, one amber 
bead, one shell, one clay spindle whorl, one tooth of the wild boar, 
and a piece of human bone. Teeth of the wild boar were much 
prized as amulet pendants; some are carefully mounted in bronze 
with a ring for suspension. Wheels strung on wire were worn as 
pendants; they are also found attached to fibulae. Both wheels and 
simple rings abounded during La Tene III and served, not only 
as amulets, but also as media of exchange; the usual number of 
spokes is either four or eight. The wheel was sometimes attached 
to the torque as a sort of pendant. 

Pierced rondelles cut from the human cranium have been found 
in a number of La Tene sepultures. The one found at Bergéres- 
les-Vertus (Marne) has three perforations. Another found at 
Somme-Bionne (Marne) is in the form of a trefoil; each of the 
circles composing the trefoil is perforated. The amulet was sus- 
pended by means of a metal wire passing through one of the per- 
forations. 2 

The cult of the ax also persisted. Amulet axes are reported 
from a number of sepultures, including the tumuli of Motte-Saint- 
Valentin (Haute-Marne) and Mercey-sur-Saone (Haute-Saone). 

The new element in amulets is the appearance of entire figures 
of man and of animals, as well as of parts thereof. The humen 
figurines for the most part represent the male sex. They are sus- 
pended by means of a ring on the head or back. Among amulets 
representing only parts of the human form, the foot occurs most 
frequently. It is found especially in Czechoslovakia, Tyrol, the 
Caucasus, and Italy. The animals most favored for amulets are 
the horse, wild boar, ox, and ram. These are the animals that 
are so frequently figured on ceremonial vases of the Hallstatt 
Epoch. 

Astral symbols often play a part in the ornamentation of La 
Tene weapons. Examples have been reported from Kastel near 
Mainz, from Allach (Bavaria), and from near Peschiera on 
Lake Garda (Verona). Kossina describes a lance head from a 


“WOASNAW HSILINA AHL WOU HdVAYOOLOHd ‘“S THAT 
OML LV SNOLATANS HLONAT TINA “AONVAA ‘ANUVN ‘LATMAN-ADAYOD VI AO ‘IVINNA LOIMVHOD COSA G "107 “OIA 





THE IRON AGE 279 


later period, found at Miincheberg in Altmark (Brandenburg), 
which is ornamented, not only with the crescent, but also with the 
swastika and triskele. The swastika is also engraved on a lance 
Mead from the station of La Téne and on a helmet from La 
Gorge-Meillet (Marne); the triskele, on a helmet from Berru 
(Marne). 

One of the reasons for the exceptional value attached to amber 
and coral during the Iron Age and even earlier was belief in their 
talismanic virtue. Necklaces composed wholly or in part of amber 
are frequently found in La Tene tombs, particularly in Liguria 
and on the Adriatic coast. As many as 1,300 amber beads were 
found in 113 tombs at Jezerine, Bosnia. The sepultures of the 
Epoch of La Tene in the vicinity of Ancona are also rich in amber. 
Like amber, coral was worn not only as an ornament, but also as 
an amulet. When it became scarce and difficult to obtain, the Celts 
had recourse as a substitute to enamel of about the same reddish 
tint. 

The manufacture of glass came to be an industry of consider- 
able importance during the Epoch of La Tene. Beads, pendants, 
and bracelets of glass were more in vogue than ever before. 
Among glass pendants, the human mask with excessively large eyes 
was an effective charm against the evil eye. Fine examples of this 
sort strung on a bronze wire were found in 1912 in a sepulture 
of the necropolis of Saint-Sulpice (Vaud). A similar glass mask 
with prominent eyes was found in the necropolis of Vitry-les- 
Reims (Marne). ‘The eye-shaped spots and nodules found so fre- 
quently on glass beads must have served the same purpose. A 
typical talismanic necklace, composed in part of glass beads of this 
sort and in part of various amulets, comes from a tomb at Kertsch 
in the Crimea. 

There is ample ground for believing that there was a magic 
number during the Epoch of La Tene. It is seen in the tendency 
to repeat the same motive three times, for example, in the triskele 
and in the triple perforation of cranial amulets (sometimes in the 
shape of a trefoil). It is often by threes that beads and rings are 
found suspended to torques. 

Sepultures.—The prevailing mode of burial during the Hall- 
statt Epoch was inhumation under tumuli. This practice con- 





Fic. 402. THE CHARIOT BURIAL OF SOMME-BIONNE, MARNE, FRANCE. 


Spits and a great carving knife can be seen beside the skeleton in addition to the usual 
burial accompaniments. Photograph from the British Museum. 


THE IRON AGE 281 


tinued during the early phases of the Epoch of La Téne, especially 
where the older culture had taken a firm hold. This is particularly 
true of eastern France, southern Germany, and Czechoslovakia. 
Beginning with La Tene II, the tumulus becomes more and more 
rare, being superseded first by flat inhumation tombs and later by 
incineration tombs. Flat tombs have this advantage, that they 
are not so liable to be detected and ransacked by subsequent 
peoples. 

Most of our knowledge of the arts, industries, customs, and 
beliefs of the culture of La Tene is based on what has been found 
in the cemeteries. The center of La Teéne culture was the region 
stretching from the Rhine and the Danube on the east to the Seine 
and Saone on the west. About two hundred La Tene necropoli 
have been located in the department of the Marne alone. Some 
of these are very large, each containing from one hundred to one 
thousand sepultures, and testify to a relatively dense population. 
Explorations of these necropoli have been carried on intermittently 
since 1860, enough of the work being methodical to render it pos- 
sible to arrive at certain general conclusions. 

Inhumation prevailed almost without exception fens ede ene 
I and IJ. Chiefs and noted warriors were interred with their 
chariots; some fifty chariot sepultures have been found in the one 
department. The high personage was buried in his uniform ac- 
companied by his chariot, sword, javelins, lance, etc. The chariot 
burials nearly all belong to La Téne I. The type is almost constant, 
The corpse rested full length in a rectangular pit at the level of 
the chariot axle, small pits being sunk deeper to accommodate the 
wheels. Generally, in addition to the rectangular pit, there was a 
longitudinal ditch to receive the chariot tongue, and at its end a 
transverse ditch in which were deposited bridle bits and harness. 
About the body were placed vessels which contained food and 
drink, various weapons of defense as well as offense, and orna- 
ments. 

One of the best known chariot burials is that of La Gorge- 
Meillet (Fig. 401). In it were found bronze a@nochoés imported 
from southern Italy. Provisions for the dead included wine from 
Italy (grape culture was still unknown in the Marne), beef, pork, 
hare, pigeon, duck, frog, etc. Spits and a great carving knife 


iy 
vq 


ay <S 
Z 


Lie axe 
iy VLE 





Fic. 403. BRONZE HARNESS TRAPPINGS FROM THE SOMME-BIONNE CHARIOT BURIAL. 
Photograph from the British Museum, 


THE IRON AGE 


were found in the chariot burial 
of Somme-Bionne (Figs. 402 and 
403). A ditch usually surrounds 
these burials, apparently a sou- 
venir of the Bronze Age custom 
of placing a circle of stones 
around their sepultures. 

The chariot of the Epoch of 
La Tene was a light, wooden, 
two-wheeled vehicle generally 
drawn by two horses and provid- 
ing place for the driver and one 
warrior. The wooden tongue of 
the chariot was supported by 
means of a wooden yoke; only the 
accessories were of metal, for the 
most part of iron. The diameter 
of the wheel was 80 to 95 cen- 
meters (31,5 to 37.4 inches), 
and the distance between wheel 
tracks varied from 1.25 to 1.35 
Meeteren( 4.110144 feet}. The 
ornamentation of both chariot and 
harness was in part of openwork 
bronze. The wood of the chariot 
was no doubt painted in rich 
colors. 

None of the wooden yokes for 
horses (with the possible excep- 
tion of the smaller one from La 
ee tavespeen preserved, 
though their metallic ornaments 
bevesveen found. he. other 
wooden yoke thus far recovered 
is one for oxen, recently found 
at the station of La Téne. There 
is an arch near each end, and two 
slits for the insertion of the leather 


283 





FiG. 404. SEPULTURE OF A WARRIOR FROM 
THE CEMETERY OF VEVEY, SWITZERLAND. 


a, a’, a*, a’, iron scabbard resting on 
and completely covering the right arm; 8, 
the iron umbone of the shield which covered 
the lower part of the body and the legs 
but which has since decayed (shown by 
dotted outlines) leaving only the umbone; 
c, iron lance head (point down and under 
the shield) with only a portion of the 
wooden shaft preserved (the rest indicated 
by dotted lines); cl, the iron chape of the 
lance (likewise point down). The lance 
had been broken at the time of the inhuma- 
tion; d, d', fibula of iron at each shoulder. 


After Naef. 


284 HUMAN ORIGINS 


strap by means of which the yoke was made fast to the horns of the 
ox. A similar method of attachment is still in vogue in some parts 


Fic. 405. MALE SKULL OF LA TENE II FROM MUN- 
SINGEN, BERNE. 


The cranium has two parietal trepanations neither of 
which had healed. Photograph by Tschumi. 





of France. 

The bridle mouth- 
pieces found in chariot 
burials are sometimes 
of bronze, sometimes 
of iron, and are of the 
broken-bit variety. In 
some cases the metal 
bears enamel ornamen- 
tation. The ornamenta- 
tion, more ample on 
one side than the other, 
points. to: thesmisarea, 
these bridles de luxe on 
paired horses. Spurs 
occur singly; we may 
infer, therefore, that it 
was the custom to at- 
tach a spur to one foot 
only. 

Inhumation, b u t 
without chariot accom- 
paniment, was the rite 
during La leneg 
With the male were 
buried his weapons and 
ornaments; with the 
female, a bronze 
torque, Sbita.ce leis 
anklets, fibulae, beads 
of. amber; \coralseand 
glass. Gold objects 
were extremely rare, 


being confined to a few male sepultures. Ceramic vases are numerous, 
as they were during La Téne I. A small supply of charcoal, needful 
in the preparation of food, is sometimes found next to the skeleton. 


THE IRON AGE 


Bronze Age. burials 
were sometimes in the hole 
lowed trunk of a tree. The 
superiority of Iron Age 
tools made it possible to 
construct wooden coffins 
composed of slabs held to- 
gether by means of iron 
nails after the fashion per- 
sisting to-day. Evidence 
of this has been noted in 
Gasterm: lrance, at Vevey 
and Munsingen in Switzer- 
land, and at Langugest in 
Czechoslovakia. The cus- 
tom was presumably bor- 
rowed from Etruria, where 
wooden coffins were em- 
ployed in the necropoli of 
Montefortino and Bologna. 

The presence of mul- 
tiple burials in the same 
sepulture may find its ex- 
planation in the testimony 
of Caesar that the death of 
an important individual 
Was accompanied by the 
sacrifice of his loved ones 
and slaves. There is every 
indication that the burials 
took place at one and the 
same time. Of the sixty- 
four tombs in the cemetery 
Simeiiizy (Marne), 
twenty-eight were double 
burials—a male and a 
female; four contained 
three skeletons each. Ac- 








Fic. 406. DOUBLE BURIAL AT MUNSINGEN. 


The skeletons are those of an adult female and a 


youth of La Téne J-IT. 


Photograph by Tschumi, 


286 HUMAN ORIGINS 


cording to Foudrignier, the males were all adult, whereas in some 
cases the accompanying female was adolescent. In a tomb at 
Bouverets (Marne) there were four headless skeletons side by side, 
recalling the Gallic custom of decapitating enemy captives and nail- 
ing the heads to houses as trophies. 

During the third phase of La Tene culture in eastern France, 
incineration was the burial rite. The ashes were deposited either 
in urns or simply in the earth, accompanied by provisions and 
articles of personal use or adornment. Incineration tombs are 
poorer in artifacts than those where inhumation was practiced; 
besides, the objects are as a rule injured by fire. 

In some parts of France the custom of burial under tumuli con- 
tinued uninterruptedly. The tumuli in some cases date from the 
Hallstatt Epoch, the burials of the Epoch of La Tene being in- 
trusive; in others, the tumuli were built expressly for La Tene 
burials but on the same general plan as were the Hallstatt tumult. 

For the French Alpine provinces the type sepulture is well rep- 
resented by that of Peyre-Haute (Hautes-Alpes), discovered by 
Chantre and preserved in the Natural History Museum at Lyons. 
The extended skeleton of a female lay in a rectangular pit lined 
with rough stones. The inventory of objects found therewith com- 
prises: a necklace consisting of thirty-eight beads—seventeen glass, 
eleven bronze, and nine amber; twenty-six bracelets on the right 
arm and six on the left; several bronze fibulae and one of iron; 
forty-six conical bronze buttons equidistant and forming a row 
that reached from the head to the feet. These buttons were evi- 
dently attached to a long tunic or mantle. The sepulture is dated 
by means of the fibulae, which belong to the type of La Tene II. 

La Tene culture if traceable by means of the sepultures, not 
only over the eastern half of France, but also over large portions 
of Belgium, Switzerland, Germany, Austria, Hungary, Czecho- 
slovakia, Russia, Scandinavia, the British Isles, Spain, Por- 
tugal, Italy (Rome sacked in 390 B.C.), and Greece (Delphi pil- 
laged in 279 B.C.). Rich sepultures belonging to the first phase 
of La Tene culture have been explored in the region of the middle 
Rhine. They are generally under tumuli and represent for the 
most part the incineration rite. Chariot burials are rare. The 
one at Waldalgesheim, discovered in 1869, is noted for its mag- 


THE IRON AGE 287 


nificent torques and bracelets of gold. It also contained a situla 
and anochoé of Italo-Greek bronze, a bronze figurine of a horse, 
the iron tire of a chariot wheel, a bridle bit and harness trappings. 

The Rhenish flat inhumation tombs of the second phase are 
much less rich than those of the first phase. One of the most 
carefully studied necropoli of La Tene II in southern Germany is 
that of Steinbichl, northwest of Manching. The forty sepultures 
explored here resemble those of the same phase in eastern Gaul. 
Sepultures of La Tene III in southern Germany are for the most 
part incineration sepultures. In Silesia both incineration and inhu- 
mation were practiced throughout the Epoch of La Tene; in Scan- 
dinavia incineration was the prevalent rite. La Tene sepultures of 
Czechoslovakia resemble those of southern Germany and eastern 
France. 

A necropolis dating from La Téne II at Vevey, Switzerland, 
was carefully explored by Naef. Many of the bodies had been 
placed in wooden coffins. In several cases a small pile of charcoal 
was found between the tibiae just below the knees. Thirty-one 
sepultures were explored at Vevey (Fig. 404) ; only two contained 
swords. At Munsingen 217 sepultures were explored and found 
to be similar to those at Vevey. Two of the male crania from 
Munsingen had been trephined after the fashion in vogue during 
the Neolithic Period, one of them twice (Fig. 405). Some of the 
sepultures at Mtinsingen were double (Fig. 406). Very little pot- 
tery is found in Swiss La Tene sepultures. Sepultures dating from 
La Tene III are rare in Switzerland. -The recent explorations of 
the Marquis of Cerralbo at Arcobriga and Aguilar de Anguita 
prove that La Téne culture had a firm foothold in Spain. 

As early as 1815-17 important La Tene sepultures were ex- 
plored in East Reading, Yorkshire, England, by the Rev. E. W. Still- 
ingfleet. Further explorations of the same site were made by Canon 
Greenwell about 1876. The sepultures were under low tumulli. 
Most of the skeletons were flexed after the fashion of Neolithic 
burials. Three of the sepultures explored by Stillingfleet were 
described in detail: 

1. King’s Barrow.—The skeleton of a warrior inhumed with shield, 


chariot, a pair of horses harnessed, two wild boars. 
2. Queen’s Barrow.—The flexed skeleton of a female inhumed with 


288 HUMAN ORIGINS 


gold ring, necklace of about one hundred glass beads, amber, bronze 
bracelets, toilet tweezers, etc. 

3. Barrow of the Charioteer.—Skeleton of a warrior with two 
bridle bits, a chariot wheel, an umbone of a shield, and two staghorn 
pendants (found on the breast). 


In one of the tumuli explored by Greenwell, a female skeleton 
lay in a circular pit, and near it had been deposited two heads of 
the domesticated pig. 
An iron mirror, two 
chariot wheels, two 
bridle bits, and harness 
trappings were found 
with the skeleton. 

Tumuli known locally 
as Danes’ Graves are 
numerous in Yorkshire. 
Sixteen tumuli at Pock- 
thorpe Hall near Kilham 
were explored in 1897. 
All the bodies had been 
flexed. One of the 
tumuli covered a chariot 
Fic. 407. INCINERATION BURIAL AT AYLESFORD, burial and contained the 

KENT, ENGLAND. skeletons of two adult 


In the pit were a number of bronze and earthenware males. The Yorkshire 
vessels of the Epoch of La Téne. The pail contained A 
three fibulae and burnt human bones. After Sir tumuli belon $ to an 


pe early phase of the lea 
Tene culture. 

La Tene sepultures have been found in several other counties, 
including Cornwall, Derby, Devon, Kent, Gloucester, and Stafford. 
The incineration sepultures of Aylesford (Kent) belong to a late 
phase of La Tene. The ashes were placed in pottery vessels re- 
sembling cinerary urns of La Teéne III found in Normandy. The 
burials are in small round pits less than a meter in depth. One of 
the richest of these incineration burials is reproduced in Figure 407. 

























































































































































































THE IRON AGE 289 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


BEAupRE, Count J., Contribution a l'étude de habitation aux débuts de 
la Tene, 72 pp., § pls. (Nancy, 1912). 

Brick, Waldemar, “Die Erfinder der Eisentechnik,”’ ZE, xxxix, 334- 
381 (1907); xl, 45-69, 241-253, 272-276 (1908); xlii, 15-30 (1910). 

BELTz, Robert, “ Die Laténe Fibeln,” ZE, xiii, 664-817, 930-943 (1911). 

Bu.iew, A. (with H.St. George Gray), The Glastonbury Lake Village, 
xl+724 pp. (Glastonbury Antig. Soc., 1911-1917). 

Butuiot, J. G., Fouilles de Mont Beuvray (anctenne Bibrachte) de 1867 a 
1895, 2 vols. (Autun, 1895) and album with 61 pls. (Saint-Etienne, 
1899). 

ENGELHARDT, Conrad, Denmark in the Early Iron Age, x+80 pp., 18 
pls. (London, 1866). 

Evans, A. J., “On a Late Celtic Urn-Field at Aylesford, Kent,” Arch., 
lii, 19 figs.; see also Anthr., 11, 588-600 (1891). 

Goetze, A. (with P. Hofer and P. Zschiesche), Die vor und frihge- 
schichtlichen Altertiimer Thiuringens, xli+466 pp., 24 pls. (Wiirz- 
burg, 1909). 

Goury, Georges, L’enceinte d’Haulzy et sa nécropole. Les étapes de 
Vhumanité, i, 4to, 107 pp., 4 pls. (Nancy, 1911). ; 

Gross, Victor, La Téne, ou un oppidum helvete (Paris, 1886). 

, Les Protohelvétes; ou les prémters colons sur les bords des locs de 

Bienne et Neuchatel, avec préface de M. le Prof. Virchow, 

xiiit31z4 pp., 33 pls. (Berlin, 1883). 

HILDEBRAND, H., “‘Sur les commencements de l’Age du Fer in Europe,” 
CIA, 7th session, II, 592-601 (Stockholm, 1874). 

HoeErRngEs, M., “La eae de Hallstatt. Essai de division systé- 
matique,” CIA, 11, 75-96 (Monaco, 1906). 

LuscHan, F. von., “Bicentechnile in Afrika,” Zi, xli, 22-59 Gsany 

Monte .tvs, O., “‘Wann begann die allgemeine Verwendung des Eisens,”’ 
PZ, v, 289-330 (1913). 

MULLER, Sophus, “Le grand vase de Gundestrup en Jutland,”’ Nordtske 
Fortidsminder, 2 Hefte, 35-68, 9 pls. (Copenhagen, 1892). 

Naezr, A., ““Le cimetiére Gallo-Helvéte de Vevey,” 64 pp., Jour. des 
fouilles, Feb.—April, 1808. 

OLSHAUSEN, Otto, ‘“‘Eisengewinnung in vorgeschichtlicher Zeit (in- 

cluding discussion), ZF, xli, 60-107 (1909). 

“Ueber Eisen im Altertum,” PZ, vii, 1-45 (1915). 

REINACH, Salomon, “La sculpture en Europe avant les influences 
Gréco-Romaines,’”’ Anthr., v, 15-34, 173-186, 288-305; vi, 18-39, 
202-311, 549-563, 662-674; and vii, 168-194 (1894-1896). 








290 HUMAN ORIGINS 


SACKEN, Ed. von, Das Grabfeld von Hallstatt in Oberésterreich, 4to, 
156 pp., 26 pls. (Wien, 1868). 

TISCHLER, O., ‘‘Ueber Gliederung der La Téne Periode und tiber die 
Dekorirung der Eisenwaffen in dieser Zeit,’ KB, xvi, 157-161, 
172 (1885). 

VIoLurER, D., “Le cimetiére de St. Sulpice (Vaud),” Indicateur des 
antigs. suisses, No. 4, 257-274 (1914); No. 1, 1-18 (1915). 

Vouca, Paul, La Tene, Foulles de ror0. et 101T settee 
(Neuchatel, 1912). 

— La Téne, Foutlles de ro12 et 1913, 22 pp., 5 pls. (Neuchatel, 
1914). 

—— La Téne, monographie de la station publiée au nom de la commis- 
ston des foutlles de La Téne, 169 pp., 50 pls., and 2 plans (Leipzig, 
1923, Karl W. Hiersemann). 

Wavre, W. (with P. Vouga), La Teéne, Fouilles de 1907,” 13 pp., 
2 maps (Neuchatel, 1908). 

WIEDMER-STERN, J., ‘‘Das La ‘Téne-Graberfeld bei Miinsingen,” 
Jahresbericht des histor. Mus. in Bern, 1906 (K. J. Weyss, Bern, 


THO7,), 


CHARTER XV 
PHYSICAL CHARACTERS OF POST-PLEISTOCENE MAN 


The cultural evolution of man is one thing; his physical evolu- 
tion is quite another. In its broad outlines we have a more or less 
faithful history of cultural evolution from its earliest phases to the 
present time in so far as the history can be based upon imperish- 
able materials alone. The least perishable of all materials enter- 
ing into the warp and woof of cultural evolution is stone; the 
student of prehistoric archeology is indeed fortunate that pre- 
historic man was so largely dependent upon stone, especially flint, 
in his long uphill fight for mastery over his environment. 

The student of man’s physical evolution is not so fortunate, 
because no part of man’s anatomy can compare with flint or stone 
in imperishability. The only part that is not subject to almost 
immediate decay under ordinary circumstances is the skeleton; and 
it can be preserved through long periods of time only under ex- 
ceptional conditions.* Thus it is that in the physical evolution of 
man we are not only dependent upon the osteologic record but even 
this record is woefully fragmentary. This, however, should not 
deter us from making the most of the material at our disposal. 

Given a certain number of skeletons and parts of skeletons dat- 
ing from the late Paleolithic Period on the one hand, and on the 
other the races that inhabit the earth to-day, the problem is to 
connect the two by making to live again the races that lived during 
the early part of the post-Pleistocene. This can be done, at least 
to a considerable extent, by a proper study of the skeletal remains 
belonging to the various intervening epochs—Azilian-Tardenoisian, 
Neolithic, and the Ages of Bronze and Iron. Fortunately most 
of these epochs furnish the student with a much greater wealth of 


1 For example, :the Paleolithic caves about Brive in Corréze are abundantly 
implementiferous, but they contain no fossil bones whatsoever because of the 
sandstone formation in which the caves occur. 


291 


292 HUMAN ORIGINS 


osteologic material upon which to base his conclusions that he had 
from any of the preceding epochs. 


AZILIAN-TARDENOISIAN MAN 


The races of the late Paleolithic Period were more or less differ- 
entiated, yet all could be referred to the species Homo sapiens. 
The types can be designated as Grimaldi, Cro-Magnon, and Chance- 
lade; all were dolichocephalic. The Azilian-Tardenoisian Epoch 
has left a rather small but interesting exhibit. At the type station 


POGUES ES 
SVa em ae aN 


BeiBt 


Si 


) 


SS 
os 


ineliers 
“ty J } 
Tr 
ey 
Sen Coy be} 


i - fp - 
»/ o 
Z 4 











Fic. 408. SECTION OF THE CAVE DEPOSITS OF GROSSE OFNET, BAVARIA. 


I, rock; II, dolomite sand; III, Aurignacian horizon; IV, Upper Aurignacian; V, 
Lower Solutrean; VI, Upper Magdalenian; VII, Azilian; VIII, Neolithic Period; IX, 
Bronze and Iron Ages (see Appendix I). After R. R. Schmidt. 


of Mas d’Azil a few human bones, richly stained by red ocher, 
were found in the Azilian horizon, but they were not complete 
enough to be of service in the determination of racial characters. 

The osteologic material from a remarkable cave between Hol- 
heim and Utzmemmingen in Bavaria near the Wiirttemberg frontier, 
known as Grosse Ofnet, deserves special study (Fig. 408). The 
cave had been inhabited intermittently from the early Aurignacian 
Epoch to the Middle Ages. In the fifth relic-bearing horizon from 
the bottom, R. R. Schmidt found important Azilian-Tardenoisian 
sepultures, consisting of two pits, each filled with a nest of crania, 


POST-PLEISTOCENE MAN 293 


accompanied by their respective lower jaws. The crania were 
arranged in such a manner as to face the west. The entire mass 
was deeply stained by red ocher. In all there were thirty-three 
skulls, twenty-seven in the large pit and six in the small (Fig. 409). 
Those of women and children predominated, and these were orna- 
mented with perforated shells and canines of the red deer, as was 





FIG. 409. THE SMALL NEST OF HUMAN CRANIA AS DISCOVERED IN THE CAVE OF 
GROSSE OFNET, BAVARIA. 


After R. R. Schmidt. 


the case at Mas d’Azil. With the exception of a few cervical 
vertebrae, there was no trace of other parts of the skeleton. 

Of the thirty-three crania it was possible to restore twenty; 
these include a mixture of types with a cephalic index ranging 
from 70 to 89. The dolichocephalic crania also have long faces, 
resembling in this respect the Mediterranean type. The brachy- 
cephalic crania represent the earliest stock of Homo alpinus. 


294 HUMAN ORIGINS 


The kitchen middens of Mugem, Portugal, have yielded a rela- 
tive abundance of human skeletal remains associated with a 
Tardenoisian industry. Two types are noted, one dolichocephalic, 
the other brachycephalic. The dolichocephals, much the more 
numerous, are rather short of stature, about 1.60 meters (5 feet 
3 inches), have small cranial capacity, and rather long face in 
harmony with the long cranium. These dolichocephals represent 
what de Quatrefages called the race of Mugem; they are more 
nearly related to early Homo mediterraneus than to the race of 
Cro-Magnon. ‘The brachycephalic type at Mugem is represented 
by only two crania. 


NEoLItTHIc MAN 


_~ While more homogeneous than the population of present-day 
Europe, a survey of the numerous skeletal remains left by the 
Neolithic populations of Europe reveals the presence of the three 
principal head types (dolichocephals, brachycephals, and meso- 
cephals), with at first a preponderance of long heads. As early 
as 1896, Salmon was able to list no fewer than 688 crania from 
France alone. Of these, 58 per cent were long heads, 21 per cent 
broad heads, and 21 per cent intermediate or mesocephals. Before 
the close of the Neolithic Period the proportion of brachycephals 
had largely increased, due to the spread of Homo alpinus which 
first appeared in the Azilian Epoch at Ofnet. 

The Neolithic dolichocephals evidently come in part from the 
late Neolithic peoples; this is especially true of certain regions. 
Long ago Broca called attention to the resemblance between the 
Cro-Magnons and the numerous Neolithic skeletons found by 
Pruniéres in the caves of Lozére. To a lesser extent the same 
thing may be said of the skeletal remains found by the Baron de 
Baye in the artificial Neolithic caves in the department of Marne. 
Here, however, there is a sprinkling of brachycephals. 

There are two kinds of Neolithic dolichocephals, the long-faced 
or harmonic, and the short-faced or disharmonic. The latter are 
derived from the Cro-Magnons; the harmonic type appeared with 
the Azilians. Both kinds appeared not only among the Neolithic 
population of France and Belgium, but also in the Iberian peninsula. 


POST-PLEISTOCENE MAN 295 


Verneau found Neolithic dolichocephals of the Cro-Magnon type 
in the provinces of Oviedo, Segovia, and Andalusia. According to 
Jacques, the skeletal material in the collections gathered in south- 
eastern Spain by the Siret brothers included both harmonic and 
disharmonic dolichocephals 


a well as brachycephals. Soap debian ALPINE RACE 
MONGOL RACE, NORDIC 
Taking Spain and Portug al NEGRO es ats cE | de aad RACE 
a’ @° 22 &2 @ 


together, the harmonic 
dolichocephals (H 0 m o 
mediterraneus) seem to 
have been dominant in 
Neolithic times. 


H.RHODESIENSIS 


oe 


euescues 
ooore 
esssessece 
eovesscesse 
ce eugses 
esoee 
of 
e 
° 
gvveceseesosnesr 
Sev,oeweseeesy* 
leu nesewescouas 


o* & 
~oo* 
? 
eo 
e 
? 
.* 
a 
7 


” 
REGUCTION OF BLACK} 
SPIGMENT IN SHESKIN 

cl 


dl 
o 
o 
vast 
@ 
i 
2 


, Hi iNEANDERTHALENSIS 
e 


ee 
. 
ecw ccasee z o 


on 
? 
em eesenecseesescsse= 


¢ 
eae 
O 


Switzerland presents Teg 


PO Led 
% 
2 


the peculiarity of an early ; ey hah ts 
dominant — brachycephalic ake te eae 
: 2, 3 teed rae 
population. Toward the Homosapienst fw ff 
middle of the Neolithic $n unseti ee 
Period, mesocephalic and ee re 
dolichocephalic — elements pine ow 
come by degrees more and GIE NUS" @HOMO HEIDELBERGENSIS 
more into evidence. Ac- OMS) 
A . EOANTHROPUS A 
cording to Schenk, the doli- i toown' man) ei ae DO eee ria 
chocephals exceed in num- PLEISTOCENE’ ot ggyaremanorsavay 
Pr es 
Beeemeencecioce of the PLIOCENE F 3 i i 
Neolithic Period. He Sageteauty 
. . . 7 £ 4 : 8 
found in the Neolithic lc aay: Ef 2uesperoprTHECus 
sepultures of Chamblandes FAMILY: § $ | Me ecto ine 
8 . ae AREA TERN WORE) 
near Lausanne a_ long- H cepts tas 
8 ® t] s 


i oe 
headed race recalling the Fic. 410. CHART OF THE HUMAN GENEALOGICAL 
Cro-Magnon type but short TREE. 


of stature and with certain The common parent trunk, still unrevealed, is to 
: be sought in records older than the Pliocene Epoch. 

negroid characters suggest- After G. Elliot Smith. 
ing kinship with the 
Grimaldi race. Toward the close of the Neolithic Period in 
Switzerland, Pittard notes the presence of a tall, dolichocephalic 
race with characters of Homo nordicus. 

The Neolithic tumuli (kourganes) of Poland and southwestern 


Russia contain skeletal remains of a tall long-headed race. The 


296 HUMAN ORIGINS 


oldest known races of central and northern Russia are of a similar 
type. In Sweden, Norway, and Denmark most of the Neolithic 
sepultures were left by a tall long-headed race, brachycephals being 
comparatively rare. The same may be said of Neolithic races that 
inhabited Germany, Czechoslovakia, Austria, and Hungary. Ac- 
cording to Schliz, there is in southwestern Germany not only a 
sprinkling of Neolithic brachycephals, but also of the Mediter- 
ranean type. 

British barrows (tumuli) are found to vary directly with the 
head types contained therein. The Neolithic long barrows contain 
sepultures with long crania. On the other hand, round barrows 
of the Bronze Age yield round or brachycephalic crania. Sir 
William Turner’s studies in Scotland revealed a dolichocephalic 
Neolithic population long of face but rather short of stature and 
presumably related to Homo mediterraneus. ‘The round-headed, 
broad-faced, Bronze Age invaders of Britain do not appear to have 
left a lasting impression on the physical make-up of the British 
ethnic complex. 

Judging from what has gone before, it is evident that at the 
close of the Neolithic Period there was already well under way a 
localization and crystallization of ethnic factors into the three types 
recognized as dominant to-day, namely, Homo nordicus, Homo 
alpinus, and Homo medtiterraneus (Fig. 410). 


MAN OF THE BRONZE: AND [RON AGES 


With the ushering in of the Bronze Age, the practice of cre- 
mation replaced that of inhumation to such an extent as seriously 
to interfere with such records as can be afforded only by skeletal 
remains. Nevertheless, there is evidence sufficient to associate the 
arrival of the Bronze Age culture in western Europe with a brachy- 
cephalic race of the Alpine type. The brachycephalic wave reached 
Britain and left its traces in the round barrows, but it did not suc- 
ceed in leaving an impress in southern Europe, where Homo medi- 
terraneus continued to hold sway. 

According to Hamy, the maximum extension of the tall, blond, 
long-headed race in western Europe was coincident with the in- 
troduction of iron, or the Hallstatt Epoch. Which land, which 


POST-PLEISTOCENE MAN 297 


ethnic type should receive the credit for this new culture? No 
definite answer can be given at present. It is equally difficult to 
Say with certainty whence came the three great ethnic types of 
present-day Europe. 

The Mediterranean race is largely a product of the south, where 
brown dolichocephals have been dominant since the beginning of 
historic time. Giuffrida-Ruggeri believed Homo mediterraneus to 
have been due to the crossing of an African type with the European 
Cro-Magnons. It is still dominant on all shores of the Mediter- 
ranean. 

Driven westward in between the blond dolichocephals of the 
north and the brown dolichocephals of the south, we find a blunt 
wedge of brown brachycephals. The original home of this stock 
was probably central Asia. The invasion seems to have had its 
greatest impetus during the Bronze Age. Traces of it are still 
evident as far west as Brittany, but its chief seat in Europe has 
for a center the Alpine region; hence the name Homo alpinus. 

The seeds of Homo nordicus could hardly have been planted in 
Scandinavia prior to the retreat of the last continental ice sheet. 
Boule suggests that they might have taken root on the plains of 
Russia. Giuffrida-Ruggeri believes that the Nordic race is an off- 
shoot of Homo mediterrancus, altered by adaptation to its new 
environment. Still others would link the Nordic race with the 
late Paleolithic race of Cro-Magnon. 


* 








NDICES 


APPE 





Per BIND 
STRATIGRAPHIC STUDY OF PALEOLITHIC SITES 


Even though there are still differences of opinion concerning the 
correlation of glacial with cultural chronology, there can no longer be 
any doubt respecting the main features of cultural evolution and their 
proper sequence. These results have been achieved through a strict 
adherence to the stratigraphic method in the study of both valley and 
cave deposits. In Chapters III to VI the distinguishing characters 
and geographic distribution of the various cuiture horizons were 
reviewed. It has seemed advisable to give in a condensed form the 
main facts brought to light by a detailed study of the principal sites 
which were occupied by man with, or without, interruption during a 
series of epochs, or during various phases of the same epoch. ‘These 
sites are arranged alphabetically under the various countries in which 
they are located. The various deposits in each section represented are 
numbered, beginning at the bottom with the oldest. 3 

In many caves and rock shelters the stratigraphy is as plain as in 
the valley deposits; in others it is sometimes difficult to make out the 
succession by means of distinct stratigraphic horizons; yet, except in 
rare instances of melange, there is a succession of culture levels, always 
in a uniform sequence. On this account it has been thought best to 
make use of the term culture sequence when referring to a section of 
a cave or rock-shelter deposit, reserving the term stratigraphy for 
sections of valley deposits. 

Lack of space has rendered it necessary to limit the chapter on 
stratigraphy and culture sequence to stations in which the Paleolithic 
(and Eolithic) Period is represented. Suffice it to say that a culture 
sequence exists at many stations in which only later epochs are repre- 
sented and is not without its important bearing on the subject of 
prehistoric chronology. A good example is the Camp de Chassey 
(Saone-et-Loire), where one finds evidence of a succession of epochs 
including: Neolithic Period, Bronze Age, first and second phases of 
the Iron Age, and the Roman Period. Other examples are afforded 
by such Neolithic lake villages as Auvernier, Bevaix, and Cortaillod 
(see Vol. II, p. 69). 


301 


302 HUMAN ORIGINS 


AUSTRIA 


Autendorf (Lower Austria) 


Plateau station in the vicinity of Drosendorf. 
Explored by Franz Kiessling, Obermaier, e¢ al. 


References: KigEssLING and OBERMAIER, MAGW, xli, 1-32 (1911); 
KIESSLING, ibid., xlii, 209-218 (1912). 
Stratigraphy: 
2. Aurignacian 
1. Mousterian 


Giesslingtal (Lower Austria) 


Loess station near Spitz. 
Explored by J. Bayer. 


Stratigraphy (Bayer): 


2. Aurignacian 
1. Aurignacian 


In digging for a foundation the peasant owner of the property found an 
Aurignacian ocher burial. The almost complete skull, colored red by 
ocher, was taken into the house where it caused so much distress to the 
superstitious wife of the peasant, that he broke it to pieces and threw them 
into a near-by stream. 


Gruebgraben (Lower Austria) 


Loess station in the Kamp valley at Kammern, near Krems. 
Explored by Bayer in 1922. 


Stratigraphy (Bayer): 
3. Upper Aurignacian 


2. Sterile layer 
1. Upper Aurignacian 


Gudenus (Lower Austria) 


Cave below the ruins of Schloss Hartenstein, in the valley of little Krems, 
west of Krems. 
Explored by Ferdinand Brun, 1883-1884. 


References: Hacker, MAGW, xiv, 145-153 (1884); HorrNnEs, DME, 
150-218 (1903); OBERMAIER and BreEuiLt, MAGW, xxxviii, 277-294, 12 
plates (1908). 

Culture Sequence (Obermaier and Breuil): 


5. Bronze Age 
4. Neolithic 


STRATIGRAPHY OF PALEOLITHIC SITES 303 


3. Magdalenian, needlecase of bird bone with engraved reindeer 
head 


2. Horizon with animal bone 
1. Mousterian, twelve cleavers 


Trabersdorf (Lower Austria) 


Plateau station in the vicinity of Drosendorf. 
Explored by Franz Kiessling, et al. 


References: KiESSLING and OBERMAIER, MAGW, xli, 1-32 (1911); 
KIESSLING, ibid., xlii, 209-218 (1912). 


Stratigraphy: 
2. Aurignacian 
1. Mousterian 


Willendorf (Lower Austria) 


Seven loess stations on the left bank of the Danube at Willendorf, near 
Krems; numbered from I-VII down the Danube, II being the most im- 
portant. The sites are but partially explored. 

Explored by Brun and L. H. Fisher; Obermaier and Bayer, in 1908. 


References: Szompatuy, KB, xl, Nos. 9-12 (1900). 
Stratigraphy (of No. II): 


9. Late Aurignacian, famous Venus of Willendorf found at base 
of this horizon (see Fig. 160). 
8-2. Aurignacian 
1. Early Aurignacian 


Zeiselberg (Lower Austria) 


Loess station in the Kamp valley near Krems. 
Explored by Bayer. 


Stratigraphy (Bayer): 

5. Upper Aurignacian 
Sterile layer 
Upper Aurignacian 
Sterile layer 
Upper Aurignacian 


He NW 


BELGIUM 
Bay-Bonnet (see Fond-de-Forét) 
Blaireaux, Les (Namur) 


Cave and rock shelter at Vaucelles, on the right bank of the Jonquiére, 
an affluent of the Meuse. 
Explored by Dupont. 


304 HUMAN ORIGINS 


References: Dupont, BARB, 2d ser., xxii, 38-40 (1866); DE Lor, RAunrtR, 
and Hovze, ‘“Fouilles au ‘Trou des Blaireaux’ 4 Vaucelles,’ MSAB, 


AXLVjall PP. 100s). 


Culture Sequence (de Loé): ; 
2. Neolithic, sepultures and industry of about same age as artificial 
caves of the Marne 
1. Paleolithic (presumably Magdalenian), chipped flints, worked 
reindeer horn, bone needles or points, large quantity of young 
reindeer horn; bear, hyena, reindeer, stag, horse, ox, fox. badger 
(blaireau), etc. 


Carriéres du Hainaut (Hainaut) 


Sand and gravel pits at Soignies. 
Explored by Rutot. 


References: Rutot, MARB, 2d ser., iv, 78 pp. (1920). 


Stratigraphy (Rutot): 
1. Middle Mousterian, including one fine cleaver 


Chaleux, Le (see Furfooz) 
Chéne, Le (Namur) 


Cave at Montaigle. 
Explored by Dupont. 


References: Dupont, CIA, 110-132 (Brussels, 1872). 


Culture Sequence: 
3. Neolithic, potsherds, clay spindle whorl, ax of staghorn 
2. Azilian 
1. Upper Magdalenian, reindeer fauna 


Coléoptére, Le (Luxembourg) 


Cave on the Ourthe river in the commune of Bomal, 40 km. (25 mi.) 
from Liége. 
Discovered and explored by J. Hamal-Nandrin. 


References: J. HAMAL-NANDRIN, RA, XXXIV (1924). 


Culture Sequence: 
2. Neolithic, fine javelin point made of flint from Grand-Pressigny 
(Indre-et- Loire) 
1. Magdalenian, harpoons of reindeer horn, needles of ivory, sculp- 
tured figurine of a coleopter (insect) in ivory 


PeeetoRaArPhy OF PALEOLITHIC SITES. 305 


Docteur, Le (Liége) 


Cave in the valley of the Mehaigne, near Huccorgne. 
Explored by Tihon and Fraipont from 1886-1888. 


References: Frarpont and TrHon, MARB, xliii, 72 pp. (1889); Rvuror, 
BSBG, xxiii, 227 (1909). — 


Culture Sequence (Rutot): 
2. Middle Magdalenian, reindeer fauna; mammoth and woolly 
rhinoceros absent 
1. Lower Aurignacian, fauna of mammoth and _ Rhinoceros 
tichorhinus; reindeer present; this would probably be classed 
as Upper Mousterian by Breuil 


Culture Sequence (Fraipont and Tihon): 
. Neolithic 

. Magdalenian 

. Solutrean 

. Mousterian 


eH by wWHW f 


The industry of the Hermitage cave in the same valley is considered 
by Rutot as Upper Acheulian (II). There are two levels distinguished by 
color, but apparently not otherwise. The fauna and industry were more 
abundant toward the bottom: flints to the number of 2,247: 63 cleavers; 
18 points; 466 scrapers; 14 scratchers; 64 blades; 22 disks or nuclei; 1,600 
chips, utilized or not. Some of the flints may be of Mousterian age. The 
fauna includes mammoth and woolly rhinoceros, but no reindeer. 


Engis (Liége) 


Cavern on the left bank of the Meuse, between Namur and Liége. 
Explored by Schmerling, Dupont. 


References: SCHMERLING, Recherches sur les ossemens fossiles découverts 
dans les cavernes dela province de Liége, 4to, 30-32 (Liége, 1833); DUPONT, 
L’homme pendant les ages de la pierre dans les environs de Dinant-sur- 
Meuse, 2d edit. (Brussels, 1872). 


Culture Sequence (Rutot): 


2. Magdalenian 
1. Lower Aurignacian 


Other levels may be included in the stalagmite breccia. The celebrated 
Engis skull, thought by Schmerling and Lyell to be of Paleolithic age, 
is believed by Rutot to be Neolithic; Boyd Dawkins and others would 
place it in the doubtful list. 


306 HUMAN ORIGINS 


Fond-de-Forét, or Bay-Bonnet (Liége) 


Double cavern in the valley of the Soumagne about 12 km. east of 
Liége. 

Explored by Schmerling, 1829-30; Tihon, 1895; Hamal-Nandrin, 1905; 
Rutot, 1907. 


References: Rutot, AFAH, 21st session, 10 pp. (1909); Rutot, Bull. des 
chercheurs de la Wallonie, iv, 7 pp. (1910). 


Culture Sequence (Rutot): 


4. Third ossiferous level 
3. Upper Aurignacian or second ossiferous level, flint blades, 
gravers, scratchers, nuclei, bone amulet 
2. Middle Aurignacian, summit of first ossiferous level 
1. Mousterian or first ossiferous level; corresponds to Upper 
Mousterian of French archeologists 
The lowest level is the most important. It yielded an abundance of 
Mousterian chipped flints, mixed with implements of Eolithic facies. 
The fauna was rich and varied: mammoth, Rhinoceros tichorhinus, cave 
bear, cave hyena, reindeer, horse, Bos. 


Furfooz (Namur) 


Four caves in the valley of the Lesse above Dinant and Pont-a-Lesse: 
Chaleux, Frontal, Nutons, and Reauviau. 
Explored by Dupont et al. in 1864. 


References: Dupont, CIA, 110-132 (Brussels, 1872). 


Culture Sequence (Dupont): 


I. Chaleux ! 
2. Upper Magdalenian, reindeer fauna 
1. Magdalenian, fauna of mammoth including Ursus ferox; chipped 
flints scarce 

II, Frontal 
2. Upper Magdalenian, human sepulture; bone needles; reindeer 
fauna 
1. Mammoth fauna, no trace of human habitation 

III. Nutons 
2. Upper Magdalenian, bone needles; reindeer fauna 
1. Mammoth fauna, no trace of human occupation 

IV. Reauviau 
2. Magdalenian 
1. Mousterian 


— 





i 


1 Some Belgian authors have employed the term Chaleuxian in the sense of 
Upper Magdalenian. 


Sie iGRAPELY OF PALEOLITHIC SITES 307 


Gendron (Namur) 


Cave in the valley of the Lesse, near the village of Gendron above 


Furfooz. 


Explored by Dupont. 


References: Dupont, CJA, 110-132 (Brussels, 1872). 


Culture Sequence (Dupont): 


2« 


Neolithic 


1. Paleolithic, fauna of mammoth 


Goyet (Namur) 


Four caverns at Mozet-les-Tombes, east of Namur. 
Explored by Dupont. 


References: Dupont, CJA, 110-132 (Brussels, 1872); Hamy, BSA, 


20 Ser., 


Vili, 425-435 (1873). 


Culture Sequence of Third Cavern: 


4. 


as 
ie 


Middle Magdalenian, necklace of fossil shells, perforated teeth 
of horse; harpoon of reindeer horn; baton; engraved bone; 
bone needles 

Upper Aurignacian, engraved baton; perforated teeth; human 
bones, including two incomplete lower jaws 

Middle Aurignacian, fauna of mammoth 

Mousterian, bone compressors; fauna of mammoth 


This cavern is characterized by the presence of harpoons, bone needles, 
and batons. On one of the latter the figures of a trout and a plantlike 
form are engraved. In Belgium, the term Goyetian (from Goyet) is some- 
times employed as the equivalent of Lower Magdalenian. 


Hastiére (Namur) 


Cavern on the Meuse at Hastiére, some 8 km. above Dinant. 
Explored by Dupont. 


References: Dupont, CJA, 110-132 (Brussels, 1872). 


Culture Sequence (Rutot): 


ey 
2. 


Aurignacian, mammoth fauna but less cold than in No. 2 
Aurignacian, mammoth fauna with addition of tundra forms 
(Myodes torquatus); slight evolution of bone industry 


1. Mousterian, utilized bone; mammoth fauna 
According to Dupont, there are five ossiferous levels, three of which 
show traces of man’s occupation. All are characterized by the fauna of the 


mammoth. 


308 HUMAN ORIGINS 


Helin (Hainaut) 


Sand pit in the fourth terrace of the Trouille valley, near Spiennes. 
Explored by Rutot. 


References: Rutot, CPF, 2d ses. 223-228 (Vannes, 1906); Rurot; La 
Préhistoire, Pt. 1, 46-51 (Brussels, 1918). 


Stratigraphy (Rutot): 
3. Mousterian, cleavers 
2. Acheulian 
. Lower Acheulian (Mesvinian) 
Helin is animportant station which requires further inteaenys exploration. 


Leval-Trahegnies (Hainaut) 


Sand and gravel pits in the valley of the Haine. 
Explored by Rutot. 


Stratigraphy (Rutot): 


2. Middle Aurignacian 
1. Mousterian 


Magrite (Namur) 


Cave near Pont-a-Lesse (also mentioned as being near Walzin or 
Anseremme). 
Explored by Dupont, Rutot, ef al. 


References: Dupont, CIA, 110-132 (Brussels, 1872); Dupont, L’homme 
pendant l’age de la pierre dans les environs de Dinant-sur-Meuse, 2d edit., 
87-93 (H. Merzbach, 1872). 


Culture Sequence (Rutot): 


4. Solutrean 
3. Upper Aurignacian, ivory human figurine; engraving on rein- 
deer horn; fragment of ivory ring; Font-Robert points 
2. Middle Aurignacian 
1. Mousterian, bone compressors 
Magrite is one of the most important stations in Belgium. The term 
Magritean is sometimes employed in Belgium as synonymous with Solutrean. 


Mesvin (Hainaut) 


Section in the railway cut immediately to the west of the Spiennes 
section (which see). 
Explored by Neyrinckx, Emile Delvaux, Rutot, e¢ al. 


References: Detvaux, BSAB, iv, 176 (1886); Rutor, ibid., 1 


Pina ttGRAPHY. OF _PALEOLITHIC SITES 309 


Stratigraphy (Rutot): 


7. Recent loess (Flandrian loess) 

6. Recent loess (Hesbayan loess) 

5. Mousterian, cleavers; thin gravel bed at base of recent loess; 
fauna of mammoth and reindeer 

. Chellean, fluvial sands 

. Pre-Chellean, pebbly horizon at base of the Quaternary 

. Lower Eocene (Landenian), marine green sand 

. Chalk with flint seams; this is the site of the well-known Neolithic 
exploitation of flint Be the sinking of pits 


H now 


Montaigle (see Le Sureau) 


Naulette, La (Namur) 


Cave near Pont-a-Lesse. 
Explored by Dupont et al. 


References: Dupont, BARB, 2d ser., xxii, 44-54 (1866); PRUNER-BEY, 
BSA, 2d ser., i, 584-603 (1866); Dupont, CIA, 110-132 (Brussels, 
1872); Hamy, Précis de Paléontologie humaine, 231-234 (1870); 
TOPINARD, R. d’A, 3d ser., i, 384-431 (1886). 


Culture Sequence (Dupont): 


4. Magdalenian, reindeer fauna 

3. Ossiferous level; fauna of mammoth 

2. Mousterian, human lower jaw; fauna of mammoth 
1. Ossiferous level; fauna of mammoth 


Remouchamps (Liége) 


Cave in the valley of the Ambléve, near Spa; known since 1832. 
Explored by Schols, Delhasse, Van den Broeck. 


References: DELHASSE, La grotte de Remouchamps (Labroue et Co., 
Brussels, 1852); VAN DEN BrRoEckK, BSAB, xvii, 128-144 (1898-99). 


Culture Sequence: 
5. soil and clay 
4. Paleolithic hearths, charcoal; bones, 2 human incisors; flints 
(Magdalenian with tendency toward Azilian-Tardenoisian) 
3. Yellow clay, bones and a single flint 
2. Paleolithic hearths, bones; flints (Magdalenian ?) 


1. Yellow clay 
A necklace of perforated shells is said te have been found in this cave. 


310 HUMAN ORIGINS 


Sainte-Walburge (Liége) 
Sand pit at Rue Jean de Wilde, Liége. 


Explored by Commont (the discoverer), Marcel de Puydt, Hamal- 
Nandrin, Jean Servais. 


References: MAarcEL DE Puypt, HAMAL-NANDRIN, and JEAN SERVAIS, 
Bull. Inst. Archéol. Liégeois, xlii, 139-215 (1913). 


Stratigraphy (adapted from de Puydt, Hamal—Nandrin, and Servais): 


8. Humus and remanie 

. Brick earth 

. Recent loess 

. Mousterian in a thin, flinty layer 

. Mousterian in a zone of brown loess 

. Upper Acheulian, red loess (probably upper portion of middle- 
ancient loess) 

2. Pebbly layer 

1. Red loess (probably middle-ancient loess) 


whoa an 


Sandron (Liége) 


Rock shelter in the valley of the Mehaigne near Huccorgne, opposite 
the Grotte du Docteur. 

Explored by Count Georges de Looz, Baron de Loé, Tihon, Depauw, 
Fraipont. 


References: FRAIPONT and TrHon, MARB, liv, 51 pp. (1896); FRAIPONT 
BSAB, xvi, 311-332 (1898). 


Culture Sequence (Fraipont): 

3. Neolithic, vegetal earth 

2, Mousterian, yellow to gray earth which contains human bones, 
flints, and pottery belonging to a Neolithic sepulture 

1. Mousterian. cleavers; red clay with human bones, flints, and 
pottery belonging to a Neolithic sepulture; fauna: Elephas 
primigenius, Rhinoceros tichorhinus, Equus caballus, Bos primi- 
genius, cave bear, cave hyena 


Spiennes (Hainaut) 


Section in the railway cut west of the village of Spiennes, valley of the 
Trouille. 
Explored by Briart, Cornet, Houzeau de la Haye, Rutot, e¢ al. 


References: Briart, CoRNET, and HouzEAu DE LA HAyE, Rapports sur 
les découvertes géologiques et archéologiques faites ad Spiennes en 1867, 
2d edit. (Mons, 1872); CorNeET and Briart, C/A, 6th session, 250-269 
(Brussels, 1872); Rutot, Antiquaries Jour., I, No. 1, 54-55 (1921). 


Pete tGkRAPIHY OF PALEOLITHIC SITES 311 


Stratigraphy (Rutot): 
7. Recent loess (Flandrian loess) 
6. Recent loess (Hesbayan loess) 
5. Mousterian, with cleavers, thin gravel bed at base of recent 
loess; fauna of mammoth and reindeer 
Chellean, fluvial sands 
Pre-Chellean, pebbly horizon at base of the Quaternary 
. Lower Eocene (Landenian) 
. Chalk with flint seams; the site of the well-known Neolithic 
exploitation of flint by the sinking of pits 


Hd W 


Spy (Namur) 


Cave and terrace known as Betche-aux-Rotches, on the left bank of the 
Orneau, near the railway station of Onoz-Spy. 

Explored by Rucquoy in 1879; Marcel de Puydt, Max. Lohest, and 
Fraipont in 1886; Musées royaux du Cinquantenaire (de Loé, Rutot, et al.) 
in 1906 and 1909. 


References: FrArpont and Maxtimin Louest, ABB, vii, 587-757, 3. pls. 
(1887); Breutt, RA, xxii, 126-129 (1912); Hrpzicka, Smithsonian 
Publ. No. 2300, 32-38 (Washington, 1916). 


Culture Sequence of both cave and terrace: 

5. Post-Paleolithic 

4. Upper Aurignacian, with transition toward Solutrean 

3. Middle Aurignacian, difficult to separate from No. 2 

2. Upper Mousterian, two human skeletons; piece of utilized bone 
evidently of same age as upper horizon at La Quina with its 
many utilized bones 

1. Mousterian, cleavers 


The artifacts from Spy are to be found principally in the Curtius Museum 
at Liége (de Puydt collection), the Musée Cinquantenaire, and the Natural 
History Museum, Brussels. The human skeletons are in the private col- 
lection of Max. Lohest, Liége (see Fig. 223). 


Sureau, Le (Namur) 


Cave at Montaigle,? valley of the Molignée. 
Explored by Dupont, Rutot. 


References: Rutrot, BARB, No. 5, 335-379 (1910). 


2 The term Montaiglean is sometimes employed by Belgian authors in the 
sense of Aurignacian. 


Oke HUMAN ORIGINS 


Culture Sequence (Rutot): 
3. Azilian 
2. Middle Aurignacian 
1. Mousterian 


BULGARIA 


Malkata Peschtera (Trnovo) 


Small cave near Samovodeni. 
Explored by Popow in 1898, 1905, and 1909. 


References: OSWALD MENGHIN, W PZ, ii, 128-132 (1915). 


Culture Sequence (Menghin): 
4. Recent humus, ashes, and charcoal 
3. Roman, dark clay 
2. Neolithic, pebbly clay 
1. Paleolithic, reddish clay with pebbles; two flint implements; 
cave bear, horse, cave hyena, Bos primigenius 


Morovitsa (Teteven) 
Cave near GloZene. 
Explored by Koitschew in 1909; Popow in 1912. 


References: OSWALD MENGHIN, W PZ, ii, 128-132 (1915). 


Culture Sequence (Menghin): 


2. Prehistoric, potsherds; ashes, charcoal 
1. Aurignacian, sandy clay; flint implement, bone point; cave 
bear, cave hyena 


CHANNEL ISLANDS 


Cotte de Saint-Brelade, La (Jersey) 


Cave on the south shore of the Island, near St. Helier. 
Explored by E. T. Nicolle, J. Sinel, R. R. Marett. 


References: NIcoLLE and SINEL, Man, x, 185-188 (1910); NICOLLE and 
SINEL, ibid., xii, 158-162 (1912); MARETT, Arch., lxii, 449-480 (1911); 
ibid., \xili, 1-7 (1912); ibid., Ixvii, 75-118 (1916); MARETT and 
DE GrucuHy, Man, Nov., 1912; Keriru, JAP, xlvi, 12-27 (1911). 


Culture Sequence (Marett): 
5. Aurignacian (or final Mousterian), graceful elongated imple- 
ments; Elephas primigenins, Rhinoceros tichorhinus 


pERALTIGRAPHY. OF PALEOLITHIC SHIM Ee ils 


4. Upper Mousterian, hearth refuse (burnt bone) 

3. Mousterian 

2. Lower Mousterian (?), one cleaver; Elephas trogontherii (?) 
1. Yellow clay 


CZECHO-SLOVAKIA 


Byciskala (Moravia) 
Cave in the district of Kiritein. 
Explored by H. Wankel in 1868. 
References: WANKEL, MAGW; vii 1-6, 125-154 (1878); OBERMAIER, 
Anthr., xvi, 406 (1908). 


Culture Sequence: 
2. Magdalenian 
1. Aurignacian 


Certova-dira (Moravia) 


Cave in district of Stramberg, near Sipka cave. 
Explored by M. K7izZ. 


References: MASkA, MAGW, xii, 32-34 (1882). 


Culture Sequence: 


3. Magdalenian 
2. Micro-fauna 
1. Mousterian 


Kulna (Moravia) 


Cave in the district of Sloup. 
Explored by H. Wankel, M. Kfiz, K. Maska, J. Knies. 


References: Kk1Z, Anthr., viii, 513-537 (1897); ibid.. MAGW, xxviii, 
1-34 (1898); zbid., ix, 341-343 (1898); OBERMAIER, MV, 307. 


Culture Sequence: 
3. Post-Paleolithic, remains of domestic animals 
2. Magdalenian, bone needles 
1. Mousterian, fauna typical of mild or temperate climate 


Lautsch or Fiirstjohanneshohle (Moravia) 


Cave at Lautsch. 
Explored by Count Szombathy. 


References: SzomBaTHuy, CJA, 12th session, 133-140 (Paris, 1900). 


314 HUMAN ORIGINS 


Culture Sequence: 
2. Magdalenian 
1. Upper Aurignacian, parts of three human skeletons, including a 
skull in fairly good condition; bone point (mammoth’s rib) 
with cleft base, necklace of perforated teeth of horse and wolf 


Ondratitz (Moravia) 


Station in the open about halfway between Brtinn and Olmiitz. 
Explored by K. MaSka and Obermaier. 


References: MASKA and OBERMAIER, Anthr., xxii, 403-412 (1911). 


Culture Sequence (Maska and Obermaier): 
2. Neolithic 
1. Solutrean 
There is a complete absence of faunal remains. Quartzite, hornstone, 
jasper, and flint were employed in the manufacture of implements. 


Pallfy (Little Carpathian Mts.) 


Cave at Detreko on the right bank of the Danube not far from Budapest 
(before the Great War, a part of Hungary). 
Explored by E. Hillebrand. 


References: HILLEBRAND, WPZ, vi, 14-39 (1919); BRreEuit, Anthr., 
XXXili, 323-346 (1923). 
Culture Sequence (Breuil): 
3. Magdalenian 


2. Lower Solutrean, laurel-leaf points 
1. Aurignacian, points with cleft base 


Predmost (Moravia) 


Loess station near Prerau Junction. 
Explored by H. Wankel, K. Maska, and M. K7fiz since 1880. 


References: Masa, Der diluviale Mensch in Mahren (Neutitschein, 1886); 
Kriz, Beitrige zur Kenntnis des Quartérs in Médhren (Steinitz, 1903); 
MaSsKA, Anthr., xii, 147-149 (1901); OBERMAIER, ibid., xvi, 393 (1905); 
MASKA, OBERMAIER, and BREUIL, ibid., xxiii, 273-285 (1912); ABSOLON, 
in KLAATSCH-HEILBORN’S, Der Werdegang der Menschheit und die 
Entstehung der Kultur, 357-373 (Berlin, 1918). 


Stratigraphy: 
3. Aurignacian 
2. Aurignacian 
1. Aurignacian 


Birra liGRAPHY OF PALEOLITHIC SITES 315 


The collections are for the most part in the Zemské Museum at Brinn; 
some are also in Vienna and Olmtitz. They include: implements of flint, 
jasper, metamorphic sandstone, ivory assegai, and daggers made from 
lion and bear fibulae; six human female figures carved from metacarpals 
of the mammoth, large ladles of ivory, ribs of mammoth with incised 
herringbone pattern, large rib with incised wave ornament, ivory beads, 
sections of ivory 7.5 to 12.5 cm. (3 to 5 in.) long; perforated teeth, per- 
forated leg bones of a young mammoth, perforated dorsal spine of an 
adult mammoth; parts of about 1,000 skeletons of mammoths of all ages 
up to 400 years, cave bear, cave wolf, arctic fox, polar fox (Canis lagopus) 
Cervus tarandus, Gulo borealis. 


Sipka (Moravia) 


Cave in the district of Stramberg. 
Explored by K. MaSska, 1879-1883. 


References: MaSxa, MAGW, 67 (1882); MaSxKa, Der diluviale Mensch in 
Miéhren (1886); OBERMAIER, MV, 160-161, 309, 351; HRDLICKA, 
Smithsonian Publ. No. 2,300, 61 (Washington, 1916), 


Culture Sequence: 


6. Recent deposits 

5. Magdalenian, yellowish brown deposit 

4. Mousterian 

. Sterile deposit 

. Mousterian, lower jaw of child; implements and chips of 
quartzite 

1. Gray and greenish sands 


ty Ww 


Vypustek (Moravia) 


Cave in the district of Kiritein. 
Explored by M. Kfriz. 


References: OBERMAIER, MV, 306-307. 


Culture Sequence: 


2. Neolithic 
1. Paleolithic 


ENGLAND 


Aveline’s Hole (Somerset) 


Cave at Burrington Combe. 
Explored by Dean Buckland, Rev. D. Williams, Boyd Dawkins. 


References: Davies, Proc. Spelaeol. Soc. Bristol, i, 61-82 (1920-21). 


316 HUMAN ORIGINS 


Culture Sequence: 
2. Azilian (?), in stalagmite, perforated shells; bone and flint 
implements 
1. Late Paleolithic—late Magdalenian type of harpoons made of 
staghorn; flint implements of Upper Paleolithic types 


Bacon Hole (South Wales) 


Cave on the Gower Peninsula. 
Explored by Colonel Wood. 


References: FaLconer, PM, ii, 498-540 (1868). 


Vulture Sequence: 
8. Post-Paleolithic, pottery; dark alluvial earth containing bones 

of Bos, Cervus, Canis vulpes, red deer, roebuck 

. Paleolithic, stalagmite with bones of Ursus 

. Breccia, bones of Ursus and Bos 

. Stalagmite, elephant tusk embedded at base 

. Ocherous cave earth, Rhinoceros hemitaechus, Elephas antiquus, 
hyena, wolf, Cervus, Bos, Ursus 

3. Blackish sand, Elephas antiquus (abundant), badger 

2. Stalagmite, thin layer formed after floor of cavern had been 
elevated above high water 

1. Yellow sand, Littorina littorea, Arvicola, bird bones 


haar 


Brixham (Devon) 
Cave near Torquay. 
Explored by W. Pengelly ef al., 1858-59. 


References: FALCONER, RAMSAY, and PENGELLY, PM, ii, 486-497 (1868); 
PENGELLY, Busk, PRestwicu, PRS, xx, 514-524 (1872). 


Culture Sequence: 

4. Stalagmite deposit 

3. Paleolithic, flint knives; ocherous cave earth with limestone 
breccia 

2. Paleolithic, flint knife under leg bones of cave bear (femur, 
tibia, and fibula with patella and astragalus in anatomic re- 
lation) 

1. Paleolithic, probably Mousterian, rounded gravel 


Creswell Crags (Derbyshire) 


Three caves: Robin Hood, Church Hole, and Pin Hole. 
Explored by the Rev. J. Magens Mello. 


STRATIGRAPHY OF PALEOLITHIC SITES 317 


References: MELLO, QO/JGS, xxxi, 679-691 (1875); MELLO and DAwKINs, 
ibid., XXxii, 240-258 (1876); ibid., xxxiii, 579-612 (1877); Boyp Daw- 
KINS, Early Man in Britain (London, 1880). 


Culture Sequence of Robin Hood (Dawkins): 
6. Roman and mediaeval 
5-4. Aurignacian or Solutrean, implements; bones; engraving on 

bone; stalagmitic breccia and upper cave earth 

3. Mousterian or Acheulian, implements of flint, iron-stone, and 
quartzite, including cleavers; fossils; cave earth 

2. Red clayey sand, rude implements of quartzite; animal remains 

1. Sterile deposit of light-colored sand with limestone blocks 


Cromer (Norfolk) 


Station in the Cromer Forest Bed, near Runton. 
Explored by Clement Reid; W. J. Lewis Abbott; W. L. H. Duckworth; 
J. Reid Moir. 


References: LEwis Appott, Nat. Sci., x, 89-96 (1897); DuckworTH, 
Antiquar. Soc. Communic., xv, 156 (1911); ReEip Morr, JATJ, li, 385-418 
(1921). 

Stratigraphy of Composite Section: 

I. to. Hummocky drift 

. Gravel and sand, Paleolithic cleaver found in Hehe 

. Contorted drift (glacial) 

. Lower glacial till 

. Arctic fresh-water bed 

. Leda myalis bed 

. Upper fresh-water bed 

. Estuarine beds, sands and gravel; Elephant Bed, level at which 

Abbott found worked flints 
2. Lower fresh-water beds 
1. Shelley Weybourn Crag and stone bed (Giinz or Scanian glacial) 


Wha AN COO 


The Forest-Bed series is composed of Nos. 4, 3, and 2. Reid Moir 
believes he has found a eS Da on the foreshore of the gravels at the 
base of No. 3. 


II. (Adapted from Reid Moir): 

6. Humus 

5. Contorted drift (glacial) 

4. Pre-Chellean, Cromer Forest-Bed series; Gtnz-Mindel (or 
Norfolkian); worked flints from base on the foreshore; Elephas 
meridionalis, E. antiquus, Rhinoceros etruscus, Equis stenonts, 
Ursus spelaeus, Cervus elaphus 

3. Shelley Weybourn Crag (Giinz or Scanian) 


318 HUMAN ORIGINS 


2. Stone bed at base of Weybourn Crag 
1. Chalk 


Eaton (Norfolk) 
Lime pit near Norwich. 
Explored in 1905 by W. G. Clarke. 


References: CLARKE, Trans. Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists’ Soc., viii, 
216 (1905); CLARKE, Proc. Prehist. Soc. of East Anglia, i, 160-168 
(1912). 

Stratigraphy (Clarke): 

4. Gravels and sands 

3. Eolithic or Paleolithic, chipped flints from a stratum 4.88 m. 
(16 ft.) below the surface 

2. Eolithic, chipped flints from a thin, flinty bed 9.15 m. (30 ft.) 
below the surface at base of Norwich Crag; mammalian remains 

Te acnals 


F. N. Howard thinks the chipped flints found at Eaton might be the 
work of nature (Proc. Prehist. Soc. of East Anglia, i, 185-193, 1912). At 
Whitlingham (Norfolk), flint artifacts were found in a stone bed corre- 
sponding to No. 2 above, by H. B. Woodward in 1878; Clarke later found 
additional examples at the same site. 


High Lodge (Suffolk) 


Station in the valley deposits near Mildenhall. 
Explored by J. Reid Moir; M. C. Burkitt. 


References: Marr, Remp Morr, Situ, Proc. Prehist. Soc. East Anglia, 
iii, 353-379 (1921). 

Stratigraphy (Moir): 

. Upper boulder clay 

. Mousterian, gravel; cleavers 

. Mousterian, brick earth 

. Acheulian, sandy gravel 

. Lower boulder clay 

. Coarse gravel, rolled implements 

. Chellean, implements 


HAH wW ANN AN 


Hoxne (Suffolk) 


Sand and clay pit, a half mile south of Hoxne village. 
Explored by John Frere from 1797; Sir John Evans and Sir Joseph 
Prestwich in 1859; British Assoc. Committee in 1895-96. 


References: JOHN FRERE, Arch., xiii, 204 (1800); Prestwicu, PT, cl, 
304-308 (1860); British Assoc. Report, 400-415 (1896). 


Piet GRAPHY. OF, PALEOLITHIC SITES 319 


Stratigraphy (British Assoc. Com.) 


BEhHwW BRN 


. Acheulian (probably), implements; bones; shells; sand loess 
. Acheulian (probably), many flint cleavers found by Frere; 


gravel 


. Black loam, arctic flora 

. Lignite bed, temperate flora 

. Clay, temperate flora 

. Chalky boulder clay (glacial formation) 
. Glacial sands 


Ipswich (Suffolk) 


Five stations in the vicinity of Ipswich. 
Explored by J. Reid Moir. 


References: Rrmp Morr, Proc. Pre. Soc: Hast Anglia, 1, 17-43 (1or1); 
ibid., JAI, xlvii, 367-412 (1917); ibid., Proc. Preh. Soc. East Anglia, 
ili, 389-430 (1921). 

Stratigraphy (J. Reid Moir): 

I. Bolton and Laughlin brickfield (composite section) 


Pie 
16. 
I5. 
14. 
$3. 
12: 
te 


A ~r COO 


Lvs 


. Sands 

. Flinty clay 
. Clay, Floor Br: scraper of quartzite 

. Bluish sandy loam roughly stratified 

. Lower Mousterian, Floor B: flint scrapers, quartzite hammer- 


Roman burial ground 

Neolithic 

Early Solutrean | 
Aurignacian, sandy clay; Floor D: carinate scratchers, gravers 
Sterile sands 

Peat 

Upper Mousterian (at top of brick earth), Floor C: shafts of 
adult human femur and humerus, fragment of adult human 
cranium 


} Equivalent of yellow boulder clay 


stones 


. Lower boulder clay (blue) 
. Floor A, burnt flints and flint flakes 
. Pre-Chellean, midglacial (interglacial) sands and _ gravels, 


burnt and worked flints 


. Eolithic, Red Crag with detritus bed at base; worked flints 


from detritus bed (Pliocene) 
London clay (Eocene) 


II. Bramford brickfield (Coe’s Pit No. 1) 


7. 
6. 


Wash 
Midglacial sands 


320 


5. 


HUMAN ORIGINS - 


Eolithic, Red Crag with detritus bed at base; chipped and 
burnt flints from detritus bed, shark’s teeth 


4. Reading Beds 
a 
2 
I 


Thanet sands 


. London clay (Eocene) 
. Chalk (Cretaceous) 


The total thickness of the section from Wash to Eocene clay inclusive is 
more than 15.3 m. (50 ft.). 


III. Foxhall Hall coprolite pit (composite section) 


. Humus 

. Upper Mousterian and Aurignacian, loamy sands 

. Yellow boulder clay 

. Foxhall-Road levels (from Nos. 2 to 5 inclusive) 

. Lower or blue boulder clay 

. Midgiacial sands-3,7)m- eo ito 

. Eolithic, Red Crag, worked flints, coprolites; ‘‘16-ft. level,’ 


definite occupation level with cores, flakes, flint implements, and 
burnt stones (Moir) 


. Eolithic, Red Crag, worked flints; ‘‘18-ft. level” 
. Detritus bed at base of Red Crag 
ie 


London clay (Eocene) 


Nos. 6 to 9 are not present 


IV. Foxhall Road 3 brickfield 


" 
6. 


3. 
2. 
I. 


Humus 
Mousterian, gravels with glacial striae; equivalent of upper, or 
yellow, boulder clay 


. Acheulian in a gravelly seam near base of decalcified yellow 


brick earth, known locally as ‘“‘Pug.” No fauna 


. Acheulian, blue brick earth (undecalcified); patinated flint 


implements 

Acheulian, sandy gravel; unpatinated; unrolled flint implements 
Old brick earth 

Lower boulder clay (blue), Rissian (?) 


V. Thorington Hall littoral deposits 


Be 


. Yellow boulder clay 
.. Brick earth 
. Eolithic, Red Crag with detritus bed at base; flint implements 


from detritus bed (Pliocene) 
London clay (Eocene) 


The detritus bed is older than the rest of Red Crag. In it were found 
three species of deer. The deposits are rich in shells and are exploited for 


lime. 





3 Also called Derby Road. 


SUR ALiGRAPHY OF PALEOLITHIC SITES 321 


Fauna of Red Crag: Fusus contrarius, Cardium, Pectunculus (also found 
at Boncelles), Purpura lapillus, Littorina littorea, Mya arenaria, Trogonthe- 
rium, Mastodon arvernensis, Elephas meridionalis, Gazella anglica, Tapirus 
arvernensts 


Kent’s Hole (Devon) 


Cavern near Torquay. 
Explored by Rev. J. MacEnery, beginning in 1824-25; R. A. C. Godwin- 
Austin; E. Vivian; W. Pengelly. 


References: PENGELLY, “Literature of Kent’s Cavern, Torquay, prior to 
1859,” Trans. Devon Assoc. Adv. Sci., Lit., and Art (1868); ibid. (1869); 
Boyp Dawkins, Cave Hunting (London, 1874); Str JoHN Evans, 
Ancient Stone Implements of Great Britain, 2d edit. (London, 1897). 


Culture Sequence: 
7. Sterile deposit 
6. Neolithic and Bronze 
. Sterile deposit 
. Magdalenian or its equivalent (dark layer) 
. Upper Mousterian and later (red cave earth) 
. Sterile deposit 
. Acheulian and Mousterian (breccia) 


SF RW hMN 


Langwith (Derbyshire) 


Cave on Poulter brook, 4.8 km. (4 mi.) south of Creswell Crags. 
Explored by Rev. E. H. Mullens from 1903. 


References: MuLLENS, Journ. Derbyshire Arch. Nat. Hist. Soc., 1 (1913). 


Culture Sequence: 
3. Post-Paleolithic (probably), bone awl; recent fauna 
2. Paleolithic, probably Magdalenian or Upper Aurignacian; 
woolly rhinoceros, cave bear 
1. Paleolithic, probably Aurignacian; hearths; flint and bone 
implements; reindeer, woolly rhinoceros, lemming 


Paviland (Glamorganshire) 


Cave in Wales between Oxchurch Bay and Worms, some 24 km. (15 


miles) from Swansea. 
Explored by L. W. Dillwyn and Miss Talbot; Dean Wm. Buckland; 
W. J. Sollas and H. Breuil. 


References: BUCKLAND, RD, 82-98 (1823); Boyp DAWKINS, Cave Hunting 
(London, 1874); Sorzas, JAI, xliii, 325-374 (1913); SOLLAS, Ancient 
Hunters, 2d edit. (Macmillan, 1915). 


322 HUMAN ORIGINS 


Culture Sequence (Sollas): 


2. Upper Aurignacian 
1. Middle Aurignacian 


Sollas failed to find successive stratified deposits, but did find implements 
of various types ranging from Mousterian to Upper Aurignacian. The most 
important single object was the so-called ‘‘Red Lady of Paviland,” dis- 
covered by Buckland, which Sollas finds to be a male instead of a female. 
The skull and greater part of the right side were missing. What was left 
of the remains are preserved in the University Museum, Oxford. At the 
hip lay two handfuls of periwinkle shells (Vatica neritalis), and ivory imple- 
ments were found next to the ribs of the skeleton. Collections from the 
cave may be seen in the museum at Swansea and also at Oxford. 


Piltdown (Sussex) 


Gravel pit in Piltdown Common near Fletching. 
Explored by Charles Dawson, A. Smith Woodward, Father Teilhard. 


References: DAwson and SmitH-WoopwWaARD, Q/JGS, Ixix, 117-151 (1913); 
ibid., \xx, 82-99 (1914); G. S. MILLER, Smithsonian Misc. Colls., \xv, 
Nore xi101s): 


Stratigraphy : 

4. Humus (see Figs. 31 and 209) 

3. Neolithic, sandy loam with gravel; flints and sherds 

2. Pre-Chellean, gravel deposit; worked flints; bone implement 
40 cm. (16 in.) long made from leg bone of Elephas antiquus; 
(see Fig. 32) fossil animal remains, human skull (see Figs. 207- 
200) 

1. Lower Cretaceous (Wealden) 


Swanscombe (Kent) 


Several gravel-pit stations: Barnfield pit, Milton Street; Colyer’s pit, 
Milton Street; Globe pit, Greenhithe. 
Explored by Henry Stopes; Reginald A. Smith, Henry Dewey. 


References: SmitH and DEwEY, Arch., lxiv, 177-204 (1912-13). 


Stratigraphy (Barnfield pit in the 30 m. (100 ft.) terrace): 
4. Mousterian 
3. Acheulian 
2. Chellean 
1. Pre-Chellean 


Slit IGRAPHY OF PALEOLITHIC SITES 323 


Traveler’s Rest (Cambridge) 


Sand and gravel pit near Cambridge. 
Explored by J. E. Marr and M. C. Burkitt. 


References: Marr, Q/JGS, Ixxv, 204-229 (1919); KENNARD and Woop- 
WARD, ibid., 229-241 (1919); BURKITT, ibid., 241-242 (19109). 


Stratigraphy (Marr and Burkitt): 


5. Boulder clay 

. Mousterian, with gray-blue patina; contorted sands 
. Chellean-Acheulian, horizontal sands; warm fauna 
. Striated pebbles 

e Galt 


HW +S 


Victoria Cave (Yorkshire) 


Cave near Settle. 
Explored by Joseph Jackson, et al. 


References: RoacH SmitH and JOSEPH JACKSON, Collectanea antiqua, 
i, No. 5 (1844); Boyp DAwkINs, Cave Hunting, 81-101 (London, 1874); 
TIDDEMAN, Proc. Geol. and Polytech. Soc. of West Riding of Yorkshire 


(1875). 


Culture Sequence: 


5. Romano-Celtic 

. Neolithic 

. Paleolithic, upper cave earth; reindeer 

. Paleolithic, laminated clay 

. Paleolithic, lower cave earth; hyena, hippopotamus, man 


HH wW fb 


Wookey Hole (Somerset) 


Several caves on the south side of the Mendip Hills, near Wells; the 
largest is known as Hyena Den. 

Explored by W. Boyd Dawkins and Rev. J. Williamson in 1859; by 
Dawkins, Willett, Parker, and A. Sanford; later by E. Balch. 


References: Boyp Dawkins, Cave Hunting, 295-314 (London, 1874); 
H. E. Batcu, Wookey Hole, its Caves and Cave Dwellers, xiv+268 
(Oxford University Press, 1914). 


Culture Sequence (from works of both Dawkins and Balch): 


4. Post-Roman 

3. Romano-British, two horizons 
2. Celtic, several horizons 

1. Paleolithic 


324 HUMAN ORIGINS 


FRANCE 


Abbeville (Somme) 


Several sand and gravel pits at and near Abbeville in the second and 
third terraces of the Somme valley and that of the Scardon, a tributary. 
The fourth, or youngest terrace at Abbeville, is below the level of the 
Somme. The buried channel of the Somme and its peat bogs testify to the 
land depression accompanying the formation of the present English Channel. 

Explored by Boucher de Perthes, Prestwich, Lyell, d’Ault du Mesnil, 
Commont, et al. 


References: BOUCHER DE PERTHES, Antiquités celtiques et antediluviennes, 
2 vols. (Paris, 1849 and 1857); Prestwicu, PT, cl, 277-317 (1860); 
Joun Evans, Arch., xxxviii, 280-307 (1860); D’AULT DU MESNIL, REA, 
vi, 284-296 (1896); Commont, Ann. Soc. Géol. du Nord, xxxix, 249-291 
(1910). 

I. The Carpentier pit is a continuation of the old Moulin-Quignon pit; 
both are in the second terrace. Between the two, acres upon acres of 
sands and gravels have been removed. The Carpentier pit was rich in 
fossil fauna. 

Stratigraphy: 

Neolithic, sandy vegetal earth 

Pebbly layer, white, fractured flints 

Upper Acheulian, brick earth of the ancient loess 

Lower Acheulian, flinty layer 

Chellean, cross-stratified yellow and white sands 

Gravelly layer 

Ossiferous marl 

Greenish sandy clay (glaise), fluviatile shells 

Coarse gravels with large flint nodules 4 


HNwWw PN AN CO 


II. Champ de Mars, gravel pits above the Champ de Manceuvres. 


Stratigraphy (adapted from d’Ault du Mesnil): 


to. Merovingian 

Gallo-Roman 

Neolithic 

Recent loess 

Acheulian, red loess, mammoth, industry at the base 

Red, sandy clay, mammoth, Paleolithic industry at base 

Yellowish sands and clays, mammoth and industry at base 

. Chellean worn gravels and sands (fluviatile), mammoth, Elephas 
antiquus 


SEM AW HO 


4From these flint nodules Father Godard and his pupils are eu to have 
fabricated spurious paleoliths for more than forty years. 


fe tS RARHMY OF PALEOLITHIC SITES: 325 


2. Pre-Chellean, gray sand marl with horizontal stratification, 
mammoth, Hlephas antiquus, E. meridionalis, Rhinoceros merckii, 
and industry at base 

1. Coarse, slightly worn gravels horizontally stratified, Elephas 
antiquus, E. meridionalis, Rhinoceros merckit 


The association of the three species of elephant occurs only in the two 
lowest levels. This same association of all three species occurs at Tilloux 
(Charente). The association of at least two of these species of elephant is 
found at Chagny in France, Saint-Acheul (Somme), in the basin of the 
Rhéne, in the Cromer Forest Bed (Norfolk), in the valley of the Ouse, 
and at Rixdorf near Berlin. 


III. Moulin-Quignon, sand and gravel pit in the second terrace, where 
in 1863 a workman is reputed to have found in situ a human lower jaw. 
Later it was proved to the satisfaction of a competent committee that the 
lower jaw had been planted in the gravel bed and was not of Paleolithic age. 


Stratigraphy (Prestwich): 

3. Surface soil—o.3 m. 

2. Brown sandy clay, gravel, and sharp flint fragments—o.6 m. 

1. Paleolithic, yellow, ocherous, and ferruginous gravel of sub- 
angular flint fragments, also flints but little broken; the whole 
in a matrix of clay and siliceous sand containing flint implements, 
bones of ruminants, and teeth of Elephas primigenius—3.6 m. 


IV. Menchecourt. From the pits of this suburb, no longer worked, 
rude flint implements were reported as early as 1841. The pits were at an 
altitude of some 12 m. (39.4 ft.) in the third terrace. Prestwich states 
that the ground in the Dufour pit was only 7.3 m. (24 ft.) above the highest 
tides of the Somme at Abbeville. 


Stratigraphy (Prestwich): 

%. Surface soil—o.2 m. 

6. Brown clay with sand including weathered flint fragments— 
B-O + ttl. 

5. Mousterian, buff-colored fine loam with small concretions 
(poupées), evidently recent loess; land shells, bones, flint 
implements—4.6 m. 

4. Fine whitish sand with chalk débris, also subordinate beds of 
loess; flint implements (probably Acheulian), fresh-water shells, 
marine shells, bones chiefly on the gravel at the base—2.1 m. 

3. White and ocherous sub-angular flint gravel; shells and bones 
as above, “‘also worked flints’”’ (?)—o.2 m. 

2. Light colored, fine sandy marl; shells, chiefly land species 
—1I.4 m. 

1. Ocherous sub-angular gravel, digging here stopped by water 


326 


HUMAN ORIGINS 


V. Dufour pit, Menchecourt. 


Stratigraphy (Boucher de Perthes): 


Sy 
4. Yellow clay sands mixed with gravels and chalk—1.5 m. 

ch 

2. Sharp yellow sands mixed with gray clay, shell fragments, etc. 


Surface soil, clay, flint fragments, etc.—3.0 m. 
Gray clay sands, “flint cleaver”? (?)—1.0 m. 


==2'0 Mm. 
Sharp white sands employed in the building trades. Here for 
the most part are found the fossil bones and flint implements 
(probably Chellean). At the base of this deposit, water is 
encountered—3.o m. 


VI. Mautort pit in the third terrace, 4 km. (2.5 mi.) from Abbeville 
on the left bank of the Somme. 


Stratigraphy: 


rr, 
. Brick earth 

. Pale-yellow deposit of loess 

. Mousterian, pebbly deposit, small white fractured flints 
. Ancient loess 

. Flinty deposit reddish in color 

. Ancient loess (yellow, stratified) 

. Lower Acheulian, flinty deposit and coarse sands 

. Upper Chellean, greenish sands - 

. otratified alluvial sands with seams of gravel 

. Chellean, fluviatile gravels 4 to 5 m. thick, rolled flints 


H 
O 


HE nuwh oa An CO”; 


Neolithic, surface wash 


VII. Leroy pit, Faubourg Saint-Gilles, altitude 28 m. (92 ft.), 2d terrace. 


Stratigraphy: 


6. 
. Mousterian, pebbly layer of white fractured flints 

. Acheulian, red clay sands (ancient brick earth) 

. Gravels 

. Yellowish fluviatile sands interstratified with small gravel beds 
. Lower gravel beds 


HNniwW BN 


Brown sandy vegetal earth 


VIII. Gamain pit at l’Ermitage, valley of the Scardon, left bank, altitude 
I3 in., 3d terrace. 


Stratigraphy: 


6. 


Be No ou 


Vegetal earth with flints 

Red sandy clay 

Lower Acheulian, flinty layer 

Chellean, white, gray, or yellow cross-stratified sands 
Gravels and coarse red sands 

Chalk 


Pepe iGrRAPHY OF PALEOLITHIC SITES 327 


IX. L’Heure pit in the direction of Caours, valley of the Scardon, 
altitude 20 m. (65.7 ft.). 


Stratigraphy: 
7. Brown vegetal earth 
6. Layer of fractured flints with white patina 
5. Red sandy clay (ancient brick earth) 
4. Lower Acheulian, flinty deposit 
3. Chellean, yellowish stratified sands, cutting a subjacent bed 
composed of altered chalks and flints 
2. White fluviatile sands 
1. Fluviatile gravels 


X. Carpentier pit. valley of the Scardon, altitude 35 m. (115 ft.), 
ad terrace. 


Stratigraphy: 
7. Vegetal earth 
6. Mousterian, fine flinty deposit 
5. Red, sandy clay 
4. Acheulian, flinty deposit with brown clay cutting the subjacent 
sands 
. Yellowish sands 
. Gravels 
1. Chalk 


by WwW 


Achenheim (Alsace) 


Loess station in the foothills of the Vosges mountains, west of Strassburg. 
Explored by E. Schumacher, P. Wernert, R. R. Schmidt. 


References: ScHmipt and WERNERT, PZ, 1, 339-346 (1909). 


Stratigraphy (Schmidt and Wernert): 


4. Neolithic (Robenhausian) 

3. Upper Aurignacian, recent loess, hearths 

2. Mousterian, recent loess, chief faunal horizon with hearths 
1. Upper Acheulian, ancient loess, hearths 


Amiens (Somme) 


Various sand and gravel pits at Amiens, especially in the suburbs of 
Montiéres and Saint-Acheul. 
Explored by Rigollot, Prestwich, Evans, Commont, e¢ al. 


References: RicoLtitot, Mém. sur des instruments en silex trouvés a Saint- 
Acheul prés d’ Amiens (Amiens, 1855); ComMont, Anthr., xix, 527-572 
(1908); Commont, AFAS, 437-444, 774-802 (Lille, 1909); CommMonrt, 
Mém. Soc. géol. du Nord, vi, mém. iii (1909); Commont, CPF, 69-77, 


328 HUMAN ORIGINS 


82-90 (Beauvais, 1910); Commont, Bull. Soc. Lin. du Nord de la France 
(1910); Commont, Ann. Soc. géol. du Nord, xli, 12-52 (1912); CoMMONT, 
CIA, i, 239-254, 291-300 (Geneva, 1912); Commont, Mém. Soc. des 
antiq. de Picardie, xxxvii, 430 pp. (1913). 


I. Debary sand and gravel pit at an elevation of 75 m. (246 ft.) in the 
first or oldest terrace near Montiéres. 


Stratigraphy (Commont): 
5. Neolithic 

. Mousterian 

. Acheulian 

. Chellean 

. Pre-Chellean 


HN WwW 


II. Buhant and Boutmy-Muchembled pits in the 4th or lowest terrace 
at Montiéres, altitude 20-28 m. (65.7-92 ft.) (see Figs. 20 and 34). 


References: Commont, CJA, i, 291-300 (Geneva, 1912) 


Stratigraphy (Commont): 


9. Upper Aurignacian 

8. Middle Aurignacian 

7. Upper Mousterian 

6. Mousterian 

5. Mousterian 

4. Ancient Mousterian with warm fauna (Elephas antiquus, Rhinoc- 
eros merckit, Hippopotamus) 

3. Chellean 

2. Chellean 

1. Chellean 


III. Etouvy in the 4th or lowest terrace at Montiéres, altitude 20-22 m. 
(65.7-72.2 ft.). 
Stratigraphy: 
5. Neolithic, vegetal earth 
4. Magdalenian, brick earth 
3. Solutrean, brick earth 


2. Aurignacian (same level as Belloy), yellow recent loess 
1. Mousterian, recent gravel; reindeer fauna 


IV. Rue de Cagny in the 3d terrace at Saint-Acheul, altitude 42-45 m. 
(138-147.7 ft.) 
Stratigraphy (Commont): 


3. Acheulian, the principal implement-bearing horizon (see Fig. 48) 
2. Chellean (see Fig. 38) 
1. Pre-Chellean (see Fig. 29) 





Sieve hArPHY OF PALEOLITHIC SITES ~ 329 


V. Bultel-Tellier pits in the 3d terrace at Saint-Acheul, altitude 42-45 m. 
(138-147.7 ft.) (see Figs. 21 and 46). 


Stratigraphy of composite site (Commont): 


11. Gallo-Roman 

. Neolithic 

. Aurignacian 

. Upper Mousterian 

. Mousterian 

Mousterian, arctic fauna 
. Upper Acheulian, lanceolate forms with white patina 
. Acheulian workshop 

. Acheulian workshop 

. Chellean 

. Pre-Chellean 


qo 
Oo 


HnwWHP NN Aw CO 


VI. Fréville sand and gravel pit in the second terrace, Route de Boves, 
Saint-Acheul. 


Stratigraphy (Commont): 

7. Neolithic, disturbed surface brick earth 

6. Paleolithic, flint blades, undisturbed brick earth 

5. Mousterian, flinty deposit at base of recent loess 

4. Upper Acheulian, flint implements with white patina, red clay 
or brick earth of ancient loess . 

3. Lower Acheulian, flint implements with reddish patina, yellowish 
sands with black points 

2. Chellean, rare examples of flints with nodular crust at base and no 
patina, sharp sands 

1. Lower gravels, flint chips rare 


VII. Leclerq sand and gravel pit in the second terrace, Route de Boves, 
Saint-Acheul. 


Stratigraphy (Commont): 
4. Upper flinty deposit 
3. Red, sandy clay or brick earth of ancient loess 
2. Chellean, sand and gravel deposit 
1. Pre-Chellean, sand and gravel deposit 


Ammonite (Charente) 


Cave near the cave of Le Placard, commune of Vilhonneur. 
Explored by A. P. Ragout. 


References: not yet published 


330 HUMAN ORIGINS 


Culture Sequence: 


3. Bronze Age 

2. Azilian (initial stage) 

1. Magdalenian (final stage), bone needles, harpoons, engraving of 
Cervidae on bone, fossil ammonite shell decorated with holes. 


Arcy-sur-Cure (Yonne) 


several caves: Grotte des Fées, Trou de l’Hyéne, Grotte de l’Ours, 
Grotte du Trilobite, etc. 

Explored by the Marquis de Vibraye, Cotteau, G. de Mortillet, the 
Abbés Parat and Breuil. 


References: DE VIBRAYE, BSGF, 2d ser., xvii, 462-478 (1859-60); 
DE QUATREFAGES and HaAmy, Crania ethnica, 25 and Pl. ii; PARAT, CIA, 
63-78 (Paris, 1900). 


Culture Sequence: 


I. Grotte des Fées, length 150 m. (492.5 ft.); many fossil remains for 
the first 50 m. (164.2 ft.); flints to the number of 20,000. 


. Neolithic 

. Magdalenian 

. Solutrean 

. Mousterian ; 

. Mousterian, débris of cave bear and cave hyena, human lower 
jaw, cleavers 


Hbw kh MN 


II. Grotte du Cheval. 
2. Post-Mousterian 
1. Mousterian 


III. Grotte de 1’ Homme 
2. Neolithic 
1. Magdalenian, three crania (may be Neolithic) 


IV. Trou de l’Hyéne 
2. Magdalenian 
1. Mousterian 


V. Grotte de |’Ours. 
Mélange of Mousterian and later industries 


VI. Grotte du Trilobite, accessible for 50 m. (164.2 ft.); over 17,000 
flint chips, of which more than 1,000 are implements; bone points, javelins, 
polishers, needles, whistle; carved reindeer horns; perforated teeth, 
incised bones; engravings on bone and schist; deposits similar to those in 
the Grotte des Fées; total thickness of the deposits, 6 m. (19.7 ft:). 


Piet lisckAPHY “OF PALEOLITHIC SITES 331 


6. Neolithic 

5. Magdalenian, fossil trilobite incised ventrally and with two 
lateral perforations 

4. Solutrean 

3. Aurignacian, containing Rhinoceros tichorhinus engraved on a 
schistose pebble; fragment of reindeer bone, on which is en- 
graved a stem with seven alternate lanceolate leaves 

2. Aurignacian 

1. Mousterian 


Arudy (Basses-Pyrénées) 


Caves of Espélungues and Saint-Michel. 
Explored by Nadaillac, Garrigou, Ed. Pottier, Ed. Piette, ef al. (in 
Espélungues), F. Mascaraux (in Saint-Michel). 


References: GARRIGOU and MaArTIN, AS, lviii, 757-763 (1864); PIETTE, 
APAR, pls. viti, xxx, Ixxxv-xciii; MASCARAUX, REA, xx, 357-378 (1910). 


Culture Sequence: 
I. Saint-Michel (small cave), fauna: horse (very abundant), reindeer 
(common), stag, ox, wild goat, pig, fox, wolf, brown bear, rodents, crow. 
3. Magdalenian, long javelin points with single bevel at base 
2. Magdalenian, horse’s head with contours cut away 
1. Magdalenian, sculpture in the round, spear throwers 
The principal collections from Arudy (see Fig. 180, No. 3) are at Saint- 
Germain-en-Laye. 
Aurensan (Hautes-Pyrénées) 


Cave near Bagnéres-de-Bigorre. 
Explored by E. and Ch. L. Frossard. 


References: Frossarp, Mat., vi, 205-216 (1870). 


Culture Sequence: 
2. Magdalenian, harpoons 
1. Upper Paleolithic (probably Magdalenian) 


Aurignac (Haute-Garonne) 


A small cave near the village of Aurignac discovered in 1852. 
Explored by Ed. Lartet in 1860. 


References: LArtTET, Mémoire sur la station humaine d’Aurignac (1860); 
bautet, Aoi Z, xv, 4th sér. (pls. 10, 11, 12); 177-253 (1861); BREUvIL, 
Po (1907). 

Culture Sequence: 

3. Neolithic (see Fig. 75) 
2. Aurignacian 
1. Aurignacian 


332 HUMAN ORIGINS 


Badegoule, or Badegols (Dordogne) 


Rock shelter at Sous-le-Roc, commune of Bersac. 
Explored by Hardy, Massenat, Girod, Pittard, Goulpie, Raymond, 
Peyrony. 


References: Grrop, Les stations de lage du renne dans les vallées de la 
Vézére et de la Corréze, iii, 27 (Balliére et Fils, 1900); PEYyRoNy, RP, 
ili, 97-116 (1908). 


Culture Sequence (Peyrony): 


7. -lalus—z.6 m. 

6. Magdalenian, brownish deposit—2o0 cm. 

5. Magdalenian, sandy layer poor in cultural remains—2o cm. 

4. Lower Magdalenian, batons, bone needles, perforated teeth, etc.; 
brown conglomerate—35 cm. 

3. Solutrean, reddish layer—3o0 cm. 

2. Solutrean, poor in cultural remains—4o cm. 

1. Solutrean—15 cm. 


Fauna: Solutrean, reindeer dominant, ox, horse; Magdalenian, reindeer 
dominant, ox, horse, fox, wolf, Arvicola, birds, human tooth. 


Balutie, La (Dordogne) 


Rock shelters in the commune of Montignac. 
Explored by Reverdit. 


References: G. and A. DE MortTILtet, Préh., 643 


Culture Sequence: 
2. Upper Solutrean, three perfect pointes ad cran forming a cache, 
hid in a small anfractuosity of the rock 
1. Mousterian 


Batie (Lot) 


Cave (Crozo bastido) in the commune of Pinsac on the opposite bank of 
the Dordogne from the cave of Lacave. 
Explored by A. Viré. 


References: Virt, CPF, 215 (Périgueux, 1905). 


Culture Sequence: 
4. Pottery of the Middle Ages 
. Gallic pottery 
. Neolithic 
. Magdalenian, engraving on bone with contours cut away; 
engraving of horse on bone; bone needles, harpoons 


SF NW 


Sean APHY: OF PALEOLITHIC SITES 333 


Batuts, Les (see Bruniquel) 


Beauregard (Seine-et-Marne) 


Station in the open near Nemours. 
Explored by G. Fouju, Henri-Martin, ef al. 


References: Henri-MartTIn, CPF, 235-239 (Beauvais, 1900). 


Culture Sequence (Henri-Martin): 


6. Vegetal earth 

Tardenoisian, gray sand 
Magdalenian, yellow sand 
Magdalenian, pale-yellow sand 
Pre-Magdalenian, pale-yellow sand 
Fontainebleau sandstone 


HN W PWN 


Bedeilhac (Ariége) 


Cave in the commune of the same name near Tarascon; not yet thor- 
oughly explored. 
Explored by E. Cartailhac. 


References: CARTAILHAC and BREUvIL, Anthr., xxi, 149-150 (1910). 


Culture Sequence: 
2. Neolithic 
1. Paleolithic 
Bellon (Cher) 


Station in a low terrace sand and gravel deposit at the junction of the 
Cher and the Yévre near Vierzon. 
Explored by Maillary, Compain, Andrieu, and Bourlon. 


References: Bourton, Mém. Soc. des Antiquaires du Centre, xxxiv (1912). 


Stratigraphy: At Bellon there is a mixture of types that defies stratigraphic 
treatment. The station represents morphologically every phase of 
Paleolithic culture, also parts of the Neolithic and of the Bronze Age. 
The Magdalenian phase of the Paleolithic is best represented. 


Bertonne (Gironde) 
Station on the surface at Les Bichons, commune of Peujard. 


References: FRANCOIS DALEAU, ‘‘Silex 4 retouches anormales de la station 
de la Bertonne ou la Rousse,’’ Actes Soc. arch. de Bordeaux, xxxi, 18 pp. 


(1910). 


334 HUMAN ORIGINS 


Stratigraphy: 
4. Neolithic 
3. Solutrean 
2. Aurignacian 
1. Mousterian 


Daleau found similar stations at Le Terrier de la Roquette, commune of 
Berson; and Jolias, commune of Marcamps, both in Gironde. 


Bize (Aude) 


Two caves (known locally as Grottes des Moulins), near Bize. 
Explored by Tournal, Jean Miquel, e¢ al. 


References: TourNAL Firs, ASN, xviii, 242-258 (1829); RovussEAU, 
Bull. Soc. hist. et nat. de Toulouse, 363 (1874); CARTAILHAC, Mat., 
Xii, 319-326 (1877); G. and A. DE MorTILLET, Préh., 648; GIRAUX, 
AFAS, 507-512 (Nimes, 1912). 


Culture Sequence: 


3. Magdalenian 
2. Solutrean, laurel-leaf points 
1. Mousterian 


Blaireaux, Les (Yonne) 


Cave near Saint-Moré. 
Explored by the Abbé Parat. 


References: Parat, CIA, 63-78 (Paris, 1900). 


Culture Sequence: 


2. Neolithic 
1. Mousterian and later 


This cave and others in the department of Yonne were explored by the 
Abbé Parat before a knowledge of Aurignacian culture had been definitely 
crystallized. The Aurignacian may be represented in many of these 
although not so stated by Parat; it certainly is present in the Grotte du 
Trilobite, for example. 


Blanchard-des-Roches (see Les Roches) 


Blanzat (see Neschers) 
Bobache (Dréme) 


Station at the foot of a cliff near the Bobache tunnel, some 1,500 m. 
(0.9 mi.) from the village of Barraques; altitude about 700 m. (2,208 ft.). 
Discovered in 1893. 


PemivelGRAPHY OF PALEOLITHIC SITES °335 


Explored by H. Miller, beginning in 1907. 


References: MULLER, AFAS, 2d ser., 1050-56 (Rheims, 1907); MULLER, 
CIA, i, 558-565 (Geneva, 1913). 


Culture Sequence: 
4. Final Azilian 
3. Azilian, painted pebbles 
2. Final Magdalenian 
1. Middle Magdalenian (latest phase) 


Boeufs, Les (see Lespugue) 


Bois du Roc (Charente) 


Rock shelter in the commune of Vilhonneur, near the cave of Le Placard. 
Explored by Delaunay. 


Culture Sequence: 


2. Bronze Age 
1. Magdalenian 


_Bos del Ser (patois for Bois du Soir) (Corréze) 


Cave in the commune of Brive, discovered about 1904 by the Abbé 
Bardon. 

Explored by Abbé Bardon, 1919-21. 
Culture Sequence (Bardon): 


2. Aurignacian 
1. Aurignacian 


Boutmy-Muchembled (see Amiens) 
Bultel-Tellier (see Amiens) 


Brassempouy (Landes) 


Two caves, Grotte du Pape and Grotte des Hyénes. 
Explored by Dubalen, Piette, de Laporterie, and Breuil. 


References: DUBALEN, Mat., xvi, 284-287 (1881); PrIeTTE and Lapor- 
TERIE, BSA, 4th ser., v, 633-648 (1894); PrETTE, ibid., 4th ser., vi, 
659-663 (1895); PretTE, Anthr., vi, 129-151 (1895); PIETTE and 
LAPORTERIE, ibid., viii, 165-173 (1897); «bid., 1x, 531-555 (1808); 
Breulit, RP, ii, Nos. 6 and 7 (1907). 


336 HUMAN ORIGINS 


Culture Sequence: 


I. Grotte du Pape (see Fig. 161) 
5. solutrean 
4. Aurignacian 
3. Aurignacian 
2. Aurignacian 
1. Aurignacian 
II. Grotte des Hyénes 
3. Solutrean 
2. Aurignacian 
1. Remains of hyena 


The principal collections from Brassempouy are at Saint-Germain-en- 
Laye and in the museum at Mont-de-Marsan, 


Bretteville (La Manche) 


Station in the open at Pointe du Heu, by the sea near Bretteville, 
6 km. (3.75 mi.) from Cherbourg. 
Explored by Henri Menut. 


References: MeENutT, Essai sur la station préh. de Bretteville, 34 pp. and 
26 plates (Cherbourg, 1886); MeErnutT, Extr. des Mém. Soc. nat. sci., 
nat. et math, de Cherbourg, xxv, 225-256, 22 pls. (1886); MerNurT, 
L’homme, iii, 533-544 (1886). 


Stratigraphy (Menut): 


4. Robenhausian 
. Magdalenian 
. Mousterian 

. Chellean 


SK NH W 


Menut’s work does not seem to have attracted much attention and 
may need revision in the light of more recent discoveries. 


Bruniquel (Tarn-et-Garonne and Tarn) 


Five rock shelters and caves on the banks of the Aveyron: Lafaye 
and Plantade known as the rock shelters of Le Chateau, the adjoining rock 
shelter of Montastruc, the Grotte du Courbet or des Forges, and the Grotte 
des Batuts. 

Explored by. L. Martin, E. Trutat, Garrigou, Vicomte de Lastic (Grotte 
des Forges), Victor Brun and Peccadeau de l’Isle (Lafaye and Plantade), 
Peccadeau de l|’Isle (Montastruc), Victor Brun (Grotte des Batuts), and 
E. Cartailhac. 


References: GArricou, BSA, iv, 651-652 (1863); GARRIGOU, AS, lvii, 
1oog—-1013 (1863); Owen, PT, clix, 517-573 (1870); PECCADEAU DE 


a 


Tin eiGkhAPHY OF PALEOLITHIC SITES 337 


Peete sAren., XVil, 213-220 (1868); ‘pe Lastic, CIA, 119-122 
(Paris, 1867); CARTAILHAC, Anthr., xiv, 129-150, 295-315 (1903). 


Culture Sequence: 


I. Chateau rock shelters. 
1. Plantade 
a. Upper Magdalenian, harpoon 
b. Lower Magdalenian 
2. Lafaye 
a. Lower Magdalenian 


In both rock shelters the Saiga antelope is characteristic of the fauna, 
hence the climate must have been very cold. 


II. Grotte des Forges, several horizons all belonging to the Upper 
Magdalenian, with harpoons similar to those in the upper level at Plantade. 

From the Grotte des Forges, de Lastic assembled two collections. The 
first was sent to the British Museum; the second is still in France and was 
published by Cartailhac in l’ Anthropologie for 1903. ‘Two engravings from 
this station are in the museum at Toulouse. 


III. Grotte des Batuts, pre-Magdalenian with a fauna in which the 
horse and ox are dominant. 
5. sterile layer 
Reddish layer, bones and flint implements 
Blackish layer, bones and flint implements 
Sterile layer, some charcoal 
Sandy layer, very few osseous remains 


oh Uk Rtaa estes 


IV. Montastruc (rock shelter). 

The two well-known pieces of sculpture, one representing two reindeer 
and the other a mammoth (dart thrower) are from Montastruc (see Figs. 
102 and 129). These and other specimens from Montastruc are in the 
British Museum. The collections from the Grotte des Forges also went 
to the British Museum. The Brun collections from Lafaye and Plantade 
are in the museum at Montauban. Bruniquel collections are also to be 
found at Toulouse, at the Museum d’Histoire Naturelle in Paris, and at 
Saint-Germain-en-Laye. 


Cagny (see Amiens) 


Cambous, Les (Lot) 


Rock shelter in the valley of the Célé. 
Explored by Bergougnoux. 


References: BERGOUGNOUX, Temps préhs. en Quercy, 33 (1887). 


338 HUMAN ORIGINS 


Culture Sequence: 
2. Azilian, harpoons 
1. Magdalenian, harpoons, bone needles, perforated teeth 
The collection is in the museum at Cahors. 


Cap-Blanc (Dordogne) 


Rock shelter in the valley of the Beune on the domain of Laussel, a 
short distance west of the great Laussel rock shelter (see Fig. 140). 
Explored by Dr. Gaston Lalanne. 


References: LALANNE, RP, v, No. 2, 16 pp. (1910); LALANNE and BREvIL, 
Anthr., xxii, 385-402 (1911). 


Culture Sequence: 


3. Magdalenian 

2. Sterile layer 

1. Lower Magdalenian, numerous gravers, batons, bone needles, 
perforated teeth and shells; remains of reindeer especially 
abundant, horse, wolf, fox, lion, red deer, saiga antelope, Bos. 


Cergy (Seine-et-Oise) 


Sand pit near Pontoise belonging to Mons. Dieudonné. 
Explored by G. Dollfus (1884), A. Laville, et al. 


References: Doiirus, Mém. Soc. roy. malac. de Belgique, xix, 40-43 (1884); 
LAVILLE, BSA, 4th ser., ix, 56-69 (1898); ibid., x, 80-88 (1890); 
Rutot, MSAB, xx, 57 pp. (1902). 


Stratigraphy: 
4. Magdalenian 
3. Mousterian 
2. Acheulian 
1. Chellean, Corbicula fluminalis 


Fauna: Elephas antiquus, E. primigenius, Belgrandia gibba, Rhinoceros 
merckii, Cervus elaphus, Corbicula fluminalis. 


Chabot, or Jean-Louis (Gard) 


Cave in the commune of Aigueze, on the right bank of the Ardéche river 
and opposite the cave of Le Figuier. 
Explored by L. Chiron. 


References: Cytron, Bull. Soc. anthr. de Lyon, viii (1889); VALENTIN, 
Mém. Acad. de Vaucluse, ix, 344-348 (1890); PAUL RAymMonp, BSA, 
th ser.,. vii, 643-645 (1896); Capitan, REA, xi, 49-51 (1901). 


pURATIGRAPHY “OF PALEOLITHIC SITES 339 


Culture Sequence: 


2. Gallo-Roman 
1. Magdalenian, mural engravings 


Chaffaud (Vienne) 


Five caves on the Charente river in the commune of Savigné, 6 km. 
(3.75 mi.) above Civray. The most important is the Grotte du Puits. 

Explored by André Brouillet pére in 1834-45; Gaillard de la Dionnerie, 
1864-65; Meillet, e¢ al., prior to 1860. 


References: BRovuImLLeT and MEILLET, Epoques antediluviennes et celtiques 
du Poitou (Paris, 1864); CARTAILHAC, Anthr., xiv, 179-182 (1903); 
CHAUVET, Mém. Soc. antiq. de ? Quest, x, 1-176 (1918). 


Culture Sequence (Grotte du Puits): 


2. Neolithic 
1. Upper Magdalenian, engravings (see Figs. 6 and 132) 


The principal collections are at Poitiers, Saint-Germain-en-Laye, and 
the Salle Vibraye at the Natural History Museum, Paris. 


Chaise, La (Charente) 


Cave in the commune of Vouthon. 
Explored by Bourgeois and Delaunay. 


References: DE VIBRAYE, AS, lviiil, 409-416 (1864); BouRGEoIsS and 
DELAUNAY, R., Arch., xii, 90-94 (1865); TREMEAU DE ROCHEBRUNE, 
BSAHC, 349-370 (1867), includes a prehistoric map of Charente; 
CRC p22. 


Culture Sequence: 
I. South cave 
2. Mag¢alenian, engravings 
1. Solutrean 
II. North cave. 
1. Mou‘ ¢erian 


According to Déchelette, the deposits at La Chaise belong to the Aurigna- 
cian and Upper Magdalenian. Aurignacian fauna: Rhinoceros tichorhinus, 
Ursus spelaeus, Hyaena spelaea, horse, Bison priscus, reindeer. 


Champ de Mars (see Abbeville) 


Champs-Blancs, also known as Jean-Blanc (Dordogne) 


Two rock shelters in the commune of Bourniquel: right shelter and left 
shelter. 


340 HUMAN ORIGINS 


Explored by Hardy and Chastaing, Landesque, Coste, Tabanou, 
Peyrony. 


References: PEyrony, AFAS, 522-528 (Nimes, 1912). 


Culture Sequence (Peyrony): (the same for both shelters): 


2. Lower Magdalenian 
1. Upper Solutrean 


Fauna: practically the same in both horizons—ox, horse, wild goat, 
stag, reindeer, etc., the reindeer predominating. 


Chancelade (sce Raymonden) 


Chapelle-aux-Saints, La (Corréze) 


Cave (in local patois, La Bouffia) in the valley of the Sourdoire. 
Explored by the Abbés A. and J. Bouyssonie and L. Bardon, Paul 
Bouyssonie. 


References: A. and J. BouyssonrE and Barpon, Anthr., xix, 513-518 
(1908); Bourse, ibid., 519-525; xx, 257-271 (1909); BovutLe, and 
ANTHONY, ibid., xxii, 129-196 (1911); BouLr, AP, vi, 111-172 (1911); 
ibid., vil, 21-192 (1912); ibid., viii, I-70 (1913). 


Culture Sequence: There is but a single horizon which has been referred: 
to the Middle Mousterian. Human skeleton (see Figs. 225, 226 and 227). 


Chateau, Le (see Eyzies, Les) 


Chatelperron (Allier) 


Station known locally as Cave aux Fées. Between 1840-45, the date 
of the construction of the railway in front of it, Poirier collected many 
fossil bones, also implements of bone and reindeer horn, but seems to 
have neglected stone implements. His collection was acquired by the 
Academy of Nat. Sci., Philadelphia. 

Explored by Bailleau and Feningre prior to 1867. 


References: BAILLEAU, Mat., 384-388 (1869); Hamy, Précis de paléont. 
humaine, 263-264 (Paris, 1870); BREUvIL, RA, xxi, 29-40 (1911). 


Culture Sequence: Typical Lower Aurignacian; a horizon that is also 
represented at Germolles (Sadne-et-Loire), La Roche-au-Loup (Yonne), 
Gargas (Hautes-Pyrénées), and Haurets (Gironde). 


SiresliGRAPHY OF PALEOLITHIC SITES 34! 


Chelles (Seine-et-Marne) 


Gravel pits to the east of Chelles. Type station for Chellean Epoch. 
Explored by Le Roy, Choquet, Reboux, G. de Mortillet, d’Acy, from 
1677-83. 


References: CHOUQUET, Mat., 22-162 (1878); ibid., 329-344 (1881). 


Stratigraphy: (see Fig. 33) 
8. Final Mousterian, recent loess 
7. Mousterian, fine sand 
6. Ancient Mousterian and Acheulian, coarse sand 
5. Ancient Acheulian 
4. Upper Chellean (principal Chellean horizon), calcined sands; 
warm fauna 
3. Chellean, green marl 
2. Lower Chellean, gravels, generally below water level 
1. Tertiary sands 


Cluzeau, Le (Charente) 


Cave in the commune of Ronsenac, near the village of Maine-aux-Anges, 
some 5 km. (3.1 mi.) south of Villebois-Lavalette. 
Explored by Henri-Martin and J. Coiffard. 


References: CoirFrarD, BSAHC, 5 pp. (1914). 


Culture Sequence: The deposits have been disturbed but there are traces 
of an Aurignacian industry, including flints, bone point, hunter’s tally 
of bone, etc. 

Fauna: mammoth, lion, Rhinoceros tichorhinus, hyena, wolf, fox, 
reindeer, Cervus megaceros (?), bison, and horse. 


Colombiére, La (Ain) 


Rock shelter in the valley of the Ain, near Poncin. 
Explored by Adrien Arcelin, Louis Moyret, Ch. Tardy, Lucien Mayet, 
and Jean Pissot. 


References: ARCELIN, CIA, 259-263 (Paris, 1867); Movret, Annales Soc. 
d’émulation de l Ain (1876); LuctEN MAvyetT and JEAN Pissot, Abri- 
sous-roche préh. de la Colombiére, 205 pp. and 25 plates (Lyon, 1915). 


Culture Sequence: 


5. Proto-historic 

4. Neolithic 

3. Magdalenian 

2. Sterile layer—1 m. 


342 HUMAN ORIGINS 


1. Earliest Magdalenian or final Aurignacian, many flint imple- 
ments and chips; few bone implements; ornaments rare; 
engravings of Ursus, Felis, Bison, horse, Rhinoceros, reindeer, 
musk ox, deer, wild sheep, etc., on pebbles and bone; human 
figures engraved on bone 


Combarelles, Les, or Tounialou (Dordogne) 


Cavern in the valley of the Beune near Les Eyzies, commune of Tayac 
(see Figs. 117 and 118). 
Explored by Riviére, Breuil, Capitan, and Peyrony. 


References: RivizRE, AFAS, ii, 710-714 (Caen, 1894) CAPITAN and 
BREUIL, REA, xii, 33-46 (1902); CAPITAN and BrREvIL, BSA, sth ser., 
lii, 527-535 (1902); Prvyrony, “Sur l’Age des dessins de la grotte des 
Combarelles (Dordogne),” BA, 212-215 (1909). 


Culture Sequence: 


4. Middle Magdalenian 
. Lower Magdalenian 
. Solutrean 

. Aurignacian 


eH NY W 


The corridor on the right, 28 m. (92 ft.) long, was explored by Riviére 
in 1892-94. In the floor deposits he found 150 bone needles, harpoons, 
sagaies, engraved reindeer horn, flint implements, and perforated shells. 
This culture Peyrony believes to be of the Lower and Middle Magdalenian 
age. The near-by cave of Rey was inhabited during the Mousterian, 
Aurignacian, and Solutrean Epochs. For this reason and.on account of 
the nature of the work, he believes some of the mural art at Les Combarelles 
is of Aurignacian and Solutrean age, but that most of it belongs to the 
Lower and Middle Magdalenian Epochs. 


Combe, La (Dordogne) 


Cave on the Mercier farm south of La Mouthe, in the valley of 
La Combe, a tributary of the Vézére. 
Explored in 1912 by the author. 


References: MacCurpy, Amer. anthr., N.S., xvi, 157-184 (1914). 


Culture Sequence (MacCurdy): 


5. surface soil—o.2 m. 

Aurignacian, yellow clay—o.5 m. (See Figs. 69-72, 77 and 79) 
Mousterian, yellow clay, cleavers—o.6 m. (See Figs. 57-60) 
Archaic Mousterian, reddish, sandy clay—o.5 m. 

Tertiary sands 


HK HW fb 


Sine LIGRARHY OF PALEOLITHIC SITES 343 


From the Aurignacian deposit were obtained a bone point with cleft 
base, perforated shells, grooved and perforated animal teeth, and a per- 
forated human lower molar (see Fig. 72). Human teeth as ornaments 
are rare. Coiffard later found one ina Paleolithic cave in Charente. Cotta 
describes a Neolithic burial from Provence [HP, iti, 74 (1905)] that con- 
tained a human carious tooth pierced for suspension. 


Combe-Capelle (Dordogne) 


Rock shelters in the valley of the Couze near Montferrand-Périgord. 
Explored by O. Hauser in 1909 (the principal one); a Mousterian rock 
shelter at a lower level has been explored by D. Peyrony. 


References: KLAAtscH and HAuseErR, PZ, i, 273-338 (1909) 


Culture Sequence (rock shelter explored by Hauser): 

. Humus—o.5 m. (See Fig. 241) 

. solutrean—o.6 m. 

. oterile layer—o.3 m. 

. Upper Aurignacian (or Solutrean?), points with lateral notch 
at. base—o.3 m. 

5. sterile layer—o.15 m. 

4. Middle Aurignacian—o.25 m. 

o 

2 


An CO 


. sterile layer—o.15 m. 
. Lower Aurignacian (skeleton of Homo aurignacensis)—o.3 m. 
(see Figs. 242-244) 
1. Mousterian?—o.25 m. (Questioned by Breuil.) 


Conduché (Lot) 


Cave in the valley of the Célé. 
Explored by Bergougnoux. 


References: BERGOUGNOUX, Temps préhs. en Quercy (1887). 


Culture Sequence: 
2. Neolithic 


1. Magdalenian, batons, harpoons, bone needles, dart thrower, 
engraving on bone 


Couze (Dordogne) 


Rock shelter near the railway station of Couze. 
Explored by Peyrony. 
Culture Sequence: 


2. Upper Mousterian 
1. Lower Mousterian 


344 HUMAN ORIGINS 


Cro-Magnon (Dordogne) 


Rock shelter at Les Eyzies, commune of Tayac, discovered by Berthou- 
meyrou and Delmarés in March, 1868 (see Figs. 238-240). 

Explored by E. Lartet and H. Christy; L. Lartet, E. Massenat, and 
P. Girod; E. Riviére and G. Berthoumeyrou; E. Cartailhac, H. Breuil, 
and D. Peyrony; L. Giraux. 


References: LARTET and Curisty, Reliquie aquitanice, 62-125 (London, 
1865-75); LarTET, BSA, 2d ser., iii, 335-349 (1868); PauLt Broca, 
ibid., 350-392; RIVIERE, ibid., 4th ser., viii, 503-508 (1897); BREUIL, 
RP, ii, Nos. 6 and 7, 11 pp. (1907); PEyrony, CPF, 182-185 (Autun, 
1907). 


Culture Sequence: 
7. PALS 
6. Upper Aurignacian or later, unbroken series of hearths including 
the principal one; human bones 
Sterile layer 
Upper Aurignacian, hearth 
Sterile layer 
Upper Aurignacian, hearth 
Sterile layer 


Hh WwW MN 


Celebrated for the discovery of parts of five human skeletons—two 
male, one female, and fragments of two others. These have become the 
type for the so-called Cro-Magnon race. 

In 1897 Berthoumeyrou and Riviére found engravings on bone, one 
representing a bison and one a woman in full-length profile. The deposits 
were at first supposed to be of Magdalenian age, but later were referred 
to the Aurignacian Epoch. 


Crouzade, La (Aude) 


Cave at Gruissan near Narbonne. 
Explored by Rousseau, Cartailhac. 


References: CARTAILHAC, Mat., xii, 324 (1877); PirETTE, BSA, 262-267 
(1895): 


Culture Sequence: 
2. Azilian, painted pebbles 
1. Magdalenian, engravings on bone 


Crozo de Gentillo (Lot) 


Cave in the Combe-Cullier, commune of Lacave. 
Explored by A. Viré. 


References: VirE, Anthr., xix, 409-424 (1008). 


Peek APHY OR PALEOLITHIC SITES 345 


Culture Sequence (Viré): 
3. Iron Age 
2. Magdalenian, bone needles, batons, signs resembling hieroglyphs 
incised on stone and reindeer horn 
1. Aurignacian 


Cutesson (Seine-et-Oise) 


Three stations in the open on the property of Letrotteur, 2 km. (1.25 mi.) 
south of Rambouillet. 
Explored by Letrotteur and Maurice Bourlon. 


References: Bourton, HP, iv, 13-19 (1906). 


Culture Sequence: According to Bourlon, the three sites combined here 
have yielded Neolithic, Mousterian, and Chellean types, the Paleolithic 
types being confined to only two sites. He concludes therefore, that 
Cutesson had been inhabited for a long period of time. No details 
are given as to the actual superposition of cultures. 


Dufaure and Duruthy (see Sordes) 


Eglises, Les (Ariége) 


Cave in the commune of Ussat. 
Explored in part by Dr. Cuguillére. 


Culture Sequence: 


2. Neolithic sepultures 
1. Paleolithic, mural drawings in red and black 


Enléne (Ariége) 


Cave in the commune of Montesquieu-Avantes. At present, Enléne 
serves as an entrance to the cavern of Trois-Fréres. 

Explored since 1865, first by the Abbés Puech and Cau-Durban, recently 
by Count Begouen and his sons. 


References: BEGOUEN, Anthr., xxiii, 287-305 (1912). 


Culture Sequence (Begouen): 


3. Bronze Age 
2. Neolithic 
1. Magdalenian 


Eyzies, Les (Dordogne) 


I. Cave in the village of Les Eyzies, commune of Tayac, overlooking tl. 
Beune, a tributary of the Vézére. Situated 35 m. (115 ft.) above the bed 


346 HUMAN ORIGINS 


of the Beune. The cave has a maximum depth of 12 m. (39.4 ft.) and a 
breadth of 16 m. (52.5 ft.). The height of the ceiling at the center is 6 m. 
(7607 Ltt); 

Explored by Lartet and Christy in August, 1863; by Girod, Massenat, 
Capitan, Breuil, and Peyrony. 


References: LARTET and Curisty, R. Arch., ix, 241-253 (1864); CAPITAN, 
BREUIL, and Pryvrony, CPF, 137-142 (Périgueux, 1905); ibid., REA, 
XVi, 429-441 (1906). 


Culture Sequence: 


3. Carlovingian 
2. Magdalenian 
1. Upper Solutrean 


A reindeer vertebra which had been pierced through by a flint blade was 
discovered here by Lartet and Christy. Capitan, Breuil, and Peyrony 
found much red ocher in the refuse heap that had been removed from the 
cave by its occupants during the Middle Ages; also many engravings on 
bone, reindeer horn, and stone. 

II. Abri du Chateau in the village of Les Eyzies. In 1913 when the 
old chateau was being restored, Peyrony found under large blocks of fallen 
rock that a portion of the Paleolithic deposits were still intact. The rest 
of the deposits had been destroyed when the chateau was built during the 
period from the eleventh to the thirteenth centuries. The parts of the 
chateau now restored have been converted into a state museum of pre- 
historic archeology. The section under the fallen rock, with its two Mag- 
dalenian levels in situ, is a valuable adjunct to the museum proper (see Fig. 4) 


Culture Sequence (Peyrony): 
3. Final Magdalenian 
2. Sterile layer 
1. Upper Magdalenian 


Ferrassie, La (Dordogne) 


Rock shelter and cave in the commune of Savignac-du-Bugue. 
Explored by Capitan and Peyrony as early as 1898, but principally in 
1919-1921. 


References: CAPITAN and Pryrony, CPF, 143-144 (Périgueux, 1905); 
CAPITAN and PEyrony, REA, xix, 403-409 (1909); tbid., xxi, 148-150 
(1911); tbid., xxii, 29-50, 76-99 (1912); ibid., Xxx1, 02-112 (Oa). 


Culture Sequence: 


I. Rock shelter 
10. Upper Aurignacian 
9. Middle Aurignacian, biconical bone points 


Se iGkAPHY OF PALEOLITHIC SITES 1347 


Howth AN COO 


I. 


. Middle Aurignacian, slender bone points oval in section 


Middle Aurignacian, flattened bone points 
Middle Aurignacian, bone points with cleft base 


. Lower Aurignacian 
. Lower Aurignacian 


Upper Mousterian, bone compressors 


. Middle Mousterian, bone compressors; human skeletons repre- 


senting burials (see Fig. 65) 
Acheulian (Lower or Warm Mousterian according to Wiegers) 


II. Cave 


3- 
Zs 
qT. 


Upper Aurignacian, figure stone, type of La Gravette 
Middle Aurignacian 
Middle Aurignacian, bone tube that might have held mixed paint 


Figuier, Le (Ardéche) 


Cave at Saint-Martin d’Ardéche on the left bank of the Ardéche, opposite 
the cave of Chabot. 
Explored by L. Chiron. 


References: VALLENTIN, Mém. acad. de Vaucluse, ix, 344-348 (1890). 


Culture Sequence: 


3- 
aie 
I. 


Robenhausian 
Magdalenian 
Mousterian 


Figuier (Gard) 


Cave on the left bank of the Gardon near Pont Saint-Nicolas (Route de 


Nimes). 


Explored by Laval. 


References: Lavat, HP, iv, 278-279 (1906). 


Culture Sequence: 


2s 
I. 


Neolithic 
Paleolithic 
Font-Yves, La (Corréze) 


Cave in the Planche-Torte valley at the Chateau de Bassaler. 
Explored by J. and A. Bouyssonie and L. Bardon. 


References: J. and A. Bovuyssonige and L. BARpon, RA, xxiii, 218-225 


(1913); 
et arch. 


J. and A. Bouyssonige and L. Barpon, Bull. Soc. sci. hist. 
de la Corréze, xlii (1920). 


Culture Sequence: 


Ze 
LS 


Middle Aurignacian 
Lower Aurignacian 


348 HUMAN ORIGINS 


Near Font-Yves are two caves: (1) Thevenard, which has furnished 
Solutrean industry and a stone lamp; and (2) Font-Robert. 


Forges, Les (see Bruniquel) 


Four de la Baume, Le (Sadéne-et-Loire) 


Cave in the Ravine des Tranchées at Brancion near Tournus. 
Explored by L. Mayet and J. Mazenot. 


References: Mayet and Mazenot, Le Four de la Baume, grotte pré- 
historique découverte ad Brancion (Sadne-et-Loire). Br. in 8vo, 68 pp. 
(Parissro1 3). 


Culture Sequence: 


4. Iron Age 

3. Bronze Age 

2. Eneolithic, brachycephalic skull 

1. Aurignacian, industrial remains; bones of mammoth, Rhinoceros 
lichorhinus, etc. 


Fournet, Le (Dréme) 
Cave near Dié. 
Explored by E. Laval. 


References: LAVAL, ANTHONY, and HENRI-MArRTIN, RA, xxiv, 93-119 
(1914). 


Culture Sequence: 
4. Neolithic, human skeletons 
3. Sterile layer 
2. Paleolithic, one chipped flint, human and -animal bones 
1. Compact yellow earth 


Gargas (Hautes-Pyrénées) 
Cavern in the commune of Aventignan near Montréjeau. 
Explored by Dr. Félix Garrigou (1870), Félix Regnault, Cartailhac, 
and Breuil. 


References: CARTAILHAC, AFAS, ii, 717-722 (Lyon, 1906); CARTAILHAC 
and Breuit, Anthr., xxi, 129-150 (1919); CARTAILHAC and BREUvIL, 
AIB, 213-216 (1907); BOULE, ibid., xxv, 227 (1914); MARTEL, 7zbid., 
XXVill, 497-535 (1917). 


Culture Sequence: 
7. Layer of stalagmite 
6. Upper Aurignacian, gravette points, gravers, baton, engravings 
on stone 


Pine elGRAPIY OF PALEOLITHIC SITES 349 


5. Middle Aurignacian, carinate scrapers, bone points with cleft 
base 

. Final Mousterian and early Aurignacian 

Fossil remains but no industry 

Lower Mousterian, implements of quartzite in situ 

Fossil remains but no industry 


H NW 


Mural art, especially negative imprints of the human hand in black and 
red (see Fig. 327); incised figures of the elephant, horse, and bison; also 
entrelacs, arabesques, etc. 


Gavechou (Charente) 


Cave at Le Menieux near Edon. 
Explored by G. Chauvet. 


References: CHauvet, BSAHC, 221-303 (1806). 


Culture Sequence: 
3. Magdalenian 
2. Solutrean 
1. Mousterian 


Gelie, La (Charente) 
Cave at Edon. 
Explored by G. Chauvet. 


References: CHauvet, BSAHC (1806). 


Culture Sequence: 


3. Roman 
2. Robenhausian 
1. Mousterian 


Gorge d’Enfer (Dordogne) 


Caves and rock shelters in the commune of Tayac, on the right bank 
of the Vézére river, above the village of Les Eyzies. These caves were the 
first visited by Lartet and Christy upon their arrival in Dordogne in August, 
1863. The largest, a great cave or rock shelter, had suffered the fate of 
many caverns which in 1793 were practically emptied in search of saltpeter 
for the manufacture of gunpowder. There are several small shelters which 
have yielded important archeological collections. 

Explored by Lartet and Christy; Girod, Massenat, Peyrony, e¢ al. 


References: Larter and Curisty, Relig. aquit., 4, 35, 170, 245, 281 (1865- 
1875); Grrop and MasseEnat, CJA, ii, 66 (1892); Grrop, REA, x, 
308-309 (1900); BReEuIL, RP, ii (1907); PEYRONY, AFAS, ii, 804-806 
(Lyon, 1906). 


350 HUMAN ORIGINS 


Culture Sequence: 
I. Abri Pasquet 
2. Solutrean 
1. Aurignacian 
The industrial remains at Abri Pasquet are said to be the same as those 
at Cro-Magnon and Coumba-del-Bouitou. 


II. Abri du Poisson 
2. Upper Aurignacian 
1. Middle Aurignacian 
Explored as early as 1892 by Girod. An engraving of a fish was dis- 
covered on the ceiling by Maurice Marsan in 1912. Owned by the French 
government. 


III. Abri Lartet 
Aurignacian 


IV. Grotte d’Oreille 
Solutrean 


V. Grotte d’Abzac, right or south side 
Lower Magdalenian 


VI. Abris Galou, right or south side 
Aurignacian 


Gourdan (Haute-Garonne) 


Cave near Montréjeau; 21 m. (69 ft.) long, 16 m. (52.5 ft.) wide, with 
a maximum height of 6.8 m. (22.3 ft.). 
Explored by E. Piette, beginning about 1870. 


References: PIETTE, BSA, 2d ser., vi, 247-263 (1871); ibid., viii, 384-425 
(1873); tbed., x, 279-296 (1875); PretTE, APAR pls. ii, iv, vit-x, xxvii, 
xxx, Ixviii, Ixxxii-lxxxiv; Hamy, RA, 3d ser., iv, 268-270 (1880). 


Culture Sequence: 
4. Azilian (Piette thought he remembered having found a painted 
pebble near the top of the deposits) 
3. Lower Magdalenian (or Gourdanian) (See Fig. 136.) 
2. Solutrean 
1. Mousterian, human mazxillaries 


Many implements made of imported flint, bone needles, harpoons, 
batons, many art objects; animal bones all broken for the extraction of 
marrow; fragments of human lower jaw and cranium, the latter classed as 
Magdalenian, found near the base of the deposits. The relic-bearing 
deposits had an average thickness of 6 m. (19.7 ft.). _ 

The Piette collection is now in the National Museum of Antiquities 
at Saint-Germain-en-Laye. 


eiokAPHY OF PALEOLITHIC SITES 351 


Grande-Gave (Savoie) 


Cavern in the commune of La Balme. 
Explored by Baron A. Blanc. 


References: Branc, CIA, i, 572-579 (Geneva, 10913). 


Culture Sequence: 


3. Eneolithic hearths (transition from the Neolithic to the Age of 
Metals) 

2. Azilian 

1. Magdalenian (?), human bones 


Grange, La (see Laugerie-Basse) 


Grenelle (Paris) 


Sand and gravel pit in the fourth or lowest terrace of the Seine valley. 
Explored by Emile Martin and Eugene Bertrand. 


References: E. BELGRAND, La Seine. Le bassin parisien aux ages ante- 
historiques (Impr. imperiale, 1869); Rutot, BS BG, xxiv (1910); Ruror, 
La Préhistoire (Brussels, 1918). 


Stratigraphy (adapted from Rutot): 

5. Vegetal earth 

4. Stony layer 

3. Recent loess 

2. Gravel, flint implements near top; cold fauna; brachycephalic 
human crania 

1. Gravel, (b) human cranium and Chellean industry near top; 
tropical fauna; (a) fragment of human cranium resembling 
Galley Hill skull near bottom. 


Hauteroche (Charente) 


Rock shelter called Grotte 4 Melon about 2 km. (1.25 mi.) from Chateau- 
neuf, near the village of Hauteroche. 
Explored by G. Chauvet, L. Didon, e¢ al. 


References: CHAUVET, BSAHC (1912). 


Culture Sequence: 


5. Aurignacian 

. Upper Mousterian, blades, cleavers 

. oterile layer 

. Middle Mousterian, bone compressors, cleavers, scrapers 
. Middle Mousterian, ocher 


HK NOW 


SoZ HUMAN ORIGINS 


The flint industry of Hauteroche resembles very closely that of La Quina, 
even to the patina. 


L’Herm (Ariége) 


Cave 8 km. (5 mi.) from Foix. The name is derived from a Latin 
word meaning desert, solitude. 
Explored by Alzieu in 1855; B. Rames, F. Garrigou, Abbé Puech, and 
H. Filhol in 1862; J. B. and F. T. Noulet in 1862 and later. 


References: NouLet, Mat., x, 1-23 (1875); Nouret, Mém. Acad. sci. 
inscr. et belles-lettres de Toulouse, 7th ser., vi, 497-516; CARTAILHAC 
and BouLeg, Anthr., v, 1-14 (1894). 


Culture Sequence: 


2. Neolithic, polished stone axes, sherds, human skeletons 
1. Acheulian or Mousterian 


The cave of l’Herm is noted for cleavers of quartzite and for quantities 
of the remains of the cave bear and cave lion, including entire skeletons. 


L’Homme (see Arcy) 


Hoteaux, Les (Ain) 
Cave near Rossillon. 
Explored by the Abbé Tournier and Charles Guillon. 


References: TOURNIER and GUILLON, Les hommes préhistoriques dans l Ain 
(Bourg, 1895); zbid., Les abris de Sous-sac et les Grottes de Ain a4 Vépoque 
néolithique (Bourg, 1903); D’Acy, R. Arch., 3d ser., xxvi, 240-244 (1895); 
p’Acy, BSA, 4th ser., vi, 388-395, 419-426 (1895); CHANTRE, L’homme 
OQuaternaire dans le bassin du Rhone (Paris, J. B. Balliére et Fils, 1901) 


Culture Sequence: 


I. Terrace deposits, 2.35 m. thick 

FPe te kvcant eh 
. Magdalenian 
Magdalenian 
Magdalenian, perforated baton with engraving of stag 
Magdalenian 
Magdalenian 
Proto-Magdalenian, sepulture with extended skeleton enveloped 
in red ocher; accompanied by perforated tooth of stag, chipped 
flints, and a plain baton 


HNHW PMN DW 


Fauna: reindeer most abundant, especially in the lower hearths; stag 
more abundant in upper than in lower hearths; Capra ibex, Sus scrofa, 





See kskRAPHY. OF PALEOLITHIC SITES 353 


Arctomys, Marmoitta, Castor fiber, Lepus timidus, Cervus alces, Hyaena spelaea, 
Meles taxus, small carnivors, and birds. 


II. Cave deposits 
6. Neolithic, pottery 


pee Sy eee Pe 


Hearths, chipped flints 


Yellow sands 


Magdalenian, hearth 
Glacial deposit 


. Reddish sands 


Isturitz (Basses-Pyrénées) 


Cave near the village of Isturitz, some 10 km. (6.25 mi.) east of Has- 


parren. 


Explored by E. Passemard. 


References: Pass—EMARD, BSPF,x, Nov. 27, 1913; ibid., xiii, Mar. 23, 
Bono ed. esiy, Keb, 27, 19017; idid., xvii, Mar. 25, 1920; ibid., R. 
Arch., xv, 1-45 (1922). 


Culture Sequence (Passemard): 


TIts 
11d. 
11d. 
Fy 


Lal 
e 


eNO Be oH As OOO 


Final Magdalenian, harpoons of reindeer horn 
Middle Magdalenian 

Lower Magdalenian 

Solutrean 

Sterile clay deposit 

Solutrean 

Sterile clay deposit 

Upper Aurignacian 

Middle Aurignacian, perforated animal teeth 
Aurignacian, bone points with cleft base 
Upper Mousterian, bone compressors 

Hyena occupation 

Cave bear occupation 

Upper Mousterian 


Numerous portable art objects were found in the deposit 11a-1IC¢. 


Lacave (Lot) 


Cave near the village of Lacave on the highway between Souillac and 
Rocamadour. 
Explored by A. Viré in 1902. 


References: ViRE, Anthr., xvi, 411-429 (1905). 


354 HUMAN ORIGINS 


Culture Sequence: 
6. Magdalenian, hearths 
5. Magdalenian, engraving of antelope head on reindeer horn 
4. Middle Solutrean, willow-leaf flint points with lateral notch at 
base 
3. Lower Solutrean, laurel-leaf points 
2. Lower Solutrean, hearths 
1. Lower Solutrean, baton of reindeer horn 


Other objects found include bone needles, perforated teeth, harpoon, 
engraved baton, bone implements, flint implements, perforated pebble. 
Total thickness of deposits, 7 m. (23 ft.). 


Lacoste (see Planche-Torte) 


Laugerie-Basse (Dordogne) 


Rock shelters near Les Eyzies: the classic station of Laugerie-Basse 
(including La Grange); de Vibraye; and Marseilles 150 m. (492.5 ft.) 
to the north. (See Fig. 155.) 

Explored by Lartet and Christy, Paul Girod, E. Massenat, Ph. Lalande, 
Cartailhac, Bourlon, O. Hauser, A. Viré, A. Le Bel, D. Peyrony, J. Maury. 


References: LARTET and Curisty, R. Arch., ix, 256-261 (1864); LARTET 
and Curisty, Relig. aquit. (1865-1875); MaAssENAT, LALANDE, and 
CARTAILHAC, AS, Ixxiv, 1060-1063 (1872); PauLt Grrop and ELIE 
MASSENAT, Les stations de lage du renne dans les vallées de la Vézére et 
de la Corréze, i, 110 pls. (Paris, 1900); CARTAILHAC and BREuIL, Anthr., 
XViil, 10-36 (1907); PEyrRony and Maury, RA, xxiv, 134-154 (1914); 
BouRLon and BreEvuIL, Anthr., xxvii, 1-26 (1916). 


Culture Sequence: 


I. La Grange 

6. Neolithic 
. Azilian 
. Final Magdalenian 
. Upper Magdalenian 
. Middle Magdalenian 
. Lower Magdalenian 


HH W BRM 


Implements of stone and of bone, an engraved stone, and engravings on 
reindeer horn were found at La Grange by Hauser. 


II. Marseilles 
14. Gallo-Roman 
13. Iron Age (traces only) 
12. Bronze Age (traces only) 
11. Robenhausian (Neolithic) 


PereetGkRARHY OF PALEOLITHIC SITES 355 


10. Sterile deposit 

. Azilian 

. Sterile deposit 

. Upper Magdalenian, harpoons with two rows of lateral barbs 

. Sterile deposit 

Upper Magdalenian, harpoons, generally with single row of well- 
developed lateral barbs 

. Sterile deposit 

Middle Magdalenian, harpoons with single row of lateral barbs 
Sterile deposit 

Lower Magdalenian 


WAT OO 


HNW +S 


A rich stone industry, including a lamp, was found at Marseilles bv 
Hauser. Back of and above the rock shelter is a cavern which was employed 
as a refuge in Magdalenian times. The principal collections from Mar- 
seilles are in the museum at Laugerie-Basse and in the possession of Mons. 
Le Bel, Paris. 

In respect to portable art objects, the classic station of Laugerie-Basse 
is perhaps the richest of all Paleolithic stations. Finds include: reindeer 
carved from reindeer horn, the so-called poniard; statuette in ivory, 
“Venus impudique”’; engraving on schist, ‘““combat de rennes”’; engraving, 
“femme au renne’”’ with engraving of horse on the reverse side; engraving, 
“‘chasse a l’aurochs.’’ For more than twenty years Massenat continued 
his researches here. It was he who collected the numerous engravings, 
which now form a part of the Girod collection belonging to the Museum of 
National Antiquities at Saint-Germain. A Magdalenian human skeleton 
was found here. 


Laugerie-Haute (Dordogne) 


Two rock shelters near Les Eyzies: the classic one, Laugerie-Haute; 
and the Abri Leysalles. 

Explored by Lartet and Christy in August, 1863; de Vibraye; Massenat 
and Girod; Riviére; Capitan and Breuil; Hauser; Peyrony. 


References: LARTET and Curisty, R. Arch., ix, 254-256 (1864); GrRop 
and MassENatT, CIA, ii, 65-66 (1892); CAPITAN and BreuiL, AFAS, 
ii, 771-773 (Montauban, 1902); Pau Grrop, Les stations de lage du 
renne dans les vallées de la Vézére et de la Corréze. Stations Solutréennes 
et Aurignaciennes, 100 pls. (Paris, 1906). 


Culture Sequence (Peyrony) (classic station): 
6. Robenhausian 

Magdalenian (See Fig. 134.) 

Upper Solutrean 

Lower Solutrean 

Aurignacian 

. Mousterian 


rp eae 


356 HUMAN ORIGINS 


Laugerie-Haute is rich in Solutrean lithic industry (the laurel leaf and 
the pointe ad cran). It was here that G. de Mortillet noted for the first time 
the superposition of the Magdalenian on the Solutrean, 


Laussel (Dordogne) 


Rock shelter in the valley of the Beune, on the domain of Laussel, 
commune of Marquay. 

Explored by E. Riviére in 1894; Capitan and Peyrony; but chiefly 
by Gaston Lalanne from 1908-1912. 


References: Breuit, RP, iv, Nos. 8 and 9 (1909); LALANNE, Anthr., xxii, 
257-260 (1911); ibid., xxiii, 129-149 (1912); WIEGERS, ZE, xlvi, 829- 
865 (1914). 


Culture Sequence: 


I. (Lalanne and Breuil): 
1o. Surface fill 
Upper Solutrean 
. Lower Solutrean 

. oterile layer—o.g m. 

. Upper Aurignacian, bas-reliefs—o.8 m. (See Figs. 162 and 165.) 
Sterile layer—1.2 m. 

. Middle Aurignacian—o.65 m. 
. sterile layer—o.8 m. 
Mousterian—o.75 m. 

. Acheulian—o.1 m. 

II. (Wiegers): 

. Upper Solutrean 

Lower Solutrean 

Upper Aurignacian 

. Middle Aurignacian 

cold fauna 
warm fauna 


} 0.6 m. 


HrNHWE NN Aw COMO 


WwW ho Dn 


2. Mousterian | 


t. Acheulian 


This rock shelter faces the south, has a total length of 126 m. (413.7 ft.) 
and an average depth of 15 m. (49.2 ft.). Total thickness of deposits, 
5.8 m. (19 ft.).. It was found to be rich in industrial remains, in addition 
to the remarkable Aurignacian stone bas-reliefs representing the human 
form, both male and female. Bas-reliefs to the number of at least five 
were found during the Lalanne excavations. The best known is the 
“Venus of Laussel’”’ holding a bison horn. The figure had been painted, 
some of the ocher being still visible. One of two others belonging to the 
same female type is in the Berlin Museum fiir V élkerkunde. A fourth relief 
is that of an athletic male figure, a good physical type as opposed to the 


a 


Seeker bthy OF PALEOLITHIC SITES 357 


symbolic female type. Finally there is a group of two figures, one of 
which is a female, the other probably a male. (See Figs. 162, 165 and 166.) 


Lespugne or Lespugue (Haute-Garonne) 


Grotte des Harpons, Grotte des Boeufs, Grotte des Rideaux, rock shelter 
of Lespugue, 18 km. (11.2 mi.) east of Saint-Gaudens. 
Explored by Dr. R. de Saint-Périer. 


References: SAINT-PERIER, BMSA, 6th ser., iii, 48-49, 149-153, 3990-404 
(1912); SAINT-PéRIER, BSPF, ix, 210-211, 498-518 (1912); SAINT- 
PERIER, HP, No. 12 (1912); SAINT PERIER, Anthr., xxx, 209-234 (1920); 
ibid, XXXii, 361-381 (1922). 


Culture Sequence (Saint-Périer): 
I. Grotte des Harpons 

9g. Gallo-Roman and pre-Roman, sherds; bronze implement 

8. Azilian or final Magdalenian, stone and bone implements, 
harpoons of stag (red deer) horn. Fauna: horse, reindeer, red 
deer, fox, pig, marmot, several species of birds: MN yctea nivea, 
Lagopus, etc. 

7. Upper Magdalenian, stone and bone implements, engravings, and 
harpoons of reindeer horn 

6. Sterile layer 

5. Magdalenian, stone and bone implements, pendants, engravings, 
sculpture in bas-relief similar to that at Arudy and Lourdes; 
fauna: same as No. 8 except pig and marmot; Canis lupus, 
mollusks from the Atlantic and Mediterranean 

4. Sterile layer 

3. Lower Magdalenian, stone and bone implements, two engravings, 
perforated teeth and shells; fauna same as No. 8 except for pig; 
Canis lupus, Hyaena, Felis, perforated shell of Arca politi (Mediter- 
ranean) 

2. Sterile layer, except for unbroken bones of wolf and reindeer 

1. Upper Solutrean, willow-leaf and laurel-lead points, long sagaies 
made of bone; fauna: reindeer, Canis lupus, mammoth 

II. Grotte des Boeufs 

2. Magdalenian, bone needles; figure of a fish with contours cut 
away 

1. Not yet explored 


III. Grotte des Rideaux 

Middle Ages 

Gallo-Roman 

Hallstatt Epoch 

Upper Aurignacian, ivory Venus (see Fig. 159), bone javelin 
points of the Aurignac type, chipped flints 

1. Clay with bones of Ursus spelaeus 


ww bh M 


358 HUMAN ORIGINS 


Levallois-Perret (Seine) 


Sand and gravel pit near Paris. 
Explored by Reboux and others. 


References: ReBoux, BSA, 2d ser., vili, 5-30 (1873); Rovujou, ibid., 
ad ser., ix, 295-297 (1874). 
Stratigraphy (Reboux): 


3. Neolithic (epoch of the dolmens) 
2. Paleolithic, reindeer fauna 
1. Paleolithic, fauna of the mammoth 


Liveyre (Dordogne) 


Cave in the commune of Tursac, across the Vézére from La Madeleine. 
Explored by E. Riviére. 


References: RiIviERE, CPF, ist session, 490-491 (Périgueux, 1905); 
MacCurpy, Amer. Anthr., N.S., xxv, 72-89 (1923); PAUL DE GIVENCHY, 
BSP EAXK, 1100 1/0 mo 7ee 

Culture Sequence (Riviére): 


2. Magdalenian 
1. Solutrean 


Longueroche (Dordogne) 


Rock shelter near Le Moustier. 
Explored by O. Hauser. 


Culture Sequence: 


2. Azilian (traces) 
1. Magdalenian 


Lortet, or Lorthet (Hautes-Pyrénées) 


Cavern in the valley of the Neste, discovered by Piette in 1872; 15 m. 
(49.2 ft.) wide at entrance, 20 m. (65.7 ft.) long. 
Explored by Piette, Cartailhac, and Trutat. 


References: Pretre, BSA, 2d ser., ix, 208-317 (1874)ee bien 
3d ser., iv, 362 (1887); Piette, APAR, pls. ii, iv, vii, x, xxx, xxxix-xlii, 
xlvit, lx. 


Culture Sequence: 


2. Azilian, harpoons of staghorn : 
1. Upper Magdalenian (or Lorthetian), small discoidal flint scrap- 
ers, harpoons of reindeer horn with cylindrical shafts, bone 


PeeeianhAr IY. OF PALROLITHIC SITES 359 


needles, engravings on stone and reindeer horn (see Fig. 127); 
reindeer rare 


Lourdes, or Lourde (Hautes-Pyrénées) 


Cave called L’Espelunge or Les Espélugues. 
Explored by A. Milne Edwards, Lartet and Christy in 1861, Léon Nelli, 
Piette. 


References: MIrnE Epwarps, ASN, xvii (1862); Piette, BSA, 4th ser., 
ili, 436-442 (1892); Piette, APAR, pls. ii, xi-xv, xvii-xxvi, xxxli-xxxviii, 
XCVI1i-c. 


Culture Sequence (Déchelette): 


2. Azilian 
1. Magdalenian (See Figs. 133 and 172.) 


After Milne Edwards and Lartet, others visited the cave but their 
excavations were of too short duration to be of importance. Then came 
an unfortunate decision on the part of the Fathers of the Cave of the 
Immaculate Conception to empty the cave in order to obtain space for the 
installation of two saints. The materials removed were used in part to 
fill in a garden and in part to improve a roadway. Later there appeared 
on the scene Léon Nelli, who discovered a remnant of the original Magda- 
lenian deposit filling a niche; in this he found the now well-known figure 
of a horse. Encouraged by this turn of events, he explored the fill in the 
roadway, from which he had the good fortune to rescue a splendid collection 
of sculptured figures, engravings, and implements of various kinds to the 
number of over 2,000. The principal collections are in the museum at 
Saint-Germain-en-Laye and at Toronto. 


Madeleine, La (Dordogne) 


Rock shelter (see Figs. 93 and 94) on the right bank of the Vézére in the 
commune of Tursac. After Laugerie-Basse, one of the richest stations in 
portable art (see Figs. 104 and 173). 


Explored by Lartet and Christy in 1863 or 1864; Peyrony, ef al. 


References: LArRTET and Curisty, R. Arch., ix, 253-254 (1864); LARTET 
and CurisTy, Relig. aquit., 5, 20, 137, 168, 206, 245, 255, 265 (1865-75). 


Culture Sequence: 


3. Upper Magdalenian 
2. Middle Magdalenian 
1. Lower Magdalenian 


360 HUMAN ORIGINS 


Mairie, La (see Teyjat) 


Mammouth, Le (Yonne) 


Cave near Saint-Moré. 
Explored by the Abbé Parat. 


References: PARAT, CIA, 63-78 (Paris, 1900); PARAT, Anthr., xii, 120 
(1901). 


Culture Sequence (Parat): 
3. Neolithic 
2. Aurignacian (?) 
1. Mousterian 


Marignac (Gironde) 


Valley deposit in the commune of Tauriac. 
Explored by Francois Daleau. | 


References: DALEAU, Actes Soc. lin. de Bordeaux, 6th ser., lviii, 321-331 
(1903); cf. HP, v, 89-90 (1907). 


Stratigraphy (Daleau): 
4. Neolithic 
3. Mousterian 
2. Acheulian 
1. Chellean 
Marmotte, La (Yonne) 
Cave near Saint-Moré. 
Explored by the Abbé Parat. 


References: PAaRrAt, C/A, 63-78 (Paris, 1900); PARAT, Anthr., xii, 120-121 
(1901). 
Culture Sequence (Parat): 
3. Neolithic 


2. Magdalenian 
1. Aurignacian (?) 


Marniére de Vilette (Loiret) 


Surface station near Vilette, 7 km. (4.3 mi.) from the station of Le Muids. 
Explored by M. Bourlon. 


References: Bourton, RP, i, No. 9 (1906). 
Culture Sequence: 
3. Vegetal earth 


2. Early Neolithic 
1. Magdalenian 





ero wer ArAyY “OF PALEOLITHIC SITES 361 


Marseilles (see Laugerie-Basse) 


Mas d’Azil (Ariége) 


A great subterranean gallery following the course of the Arise river 
for a distance of 400 m. (1,313 ft.) through a limestone formation. There 
are two stations, one on the right bank and one on the left, the latter being 
the type station for the Azilian Epoch. (See Fig. 255.) 

Explored by F. Garrigou, E. Piette, F. Regnault, E. Cartailhac, Count 
Begouen, H. Breuil. 


References: GArRIGOoU, BSGF, 2d ser., xxiv, 492-497 (1867); REGNAULT, 
Bull. Soc. hist. nat. Toulouse (1876); CARTAILHAC, Anthr., ii, 141-149 
(1801); PrETTE, ibid., v, 129-146 (1894); ibid., vi, 276-292 (1895); 
ibid., Vii, I-17, 300, 385-427 (1896); ztbid., xiv, 641-653 (1903); ibid., 
Rvieie tr 1005); PiIETTE, BM SA, sth ser., iii, 771-779 (1902); PIETTE, 
Ar ak, is. xxxi, xliii—xivi, xlviti-lix, Ixi-Ixvu, lxix, xciv-xcvii; BREUIL, BA, 
23 pp. (1902); tbid., 421-436 (1903); BEGOUEN and BREuIL, Bull. Soc. 
arch. du Midi France, 4 pp. (June 17, 1913). 


Culture Sequence: 


I. Right bank 
2. Upper Magdalenian (Rangiferian of Piette) 
1. Lower Magdalenian (Eguidian of Piette) 


II. Left bank 

. Iron Age 

. Bronze Age 

. Early Neolithic 

Azilian, painted pebbles, (see Figs. 256 and 257) 
Magdalenian 

Magdalenian 

Magdalenian 

Magdalenian 

Magdalenian, hearths 


H nw PE AN OO 


The opening of the gallery at the south end or entrance has a breadth 
of 51 m. (167.4 ft.) and a height of 48 m. (157.5 ft.). It presents a splendid 
spectacle not unlike a great cathedral with the facade removed. The cavern 
was a place of refuge during the religious wars, and saltpeter for the manu- 
facture of gunpowder was obtained from its deposits. 

The Paleolithic art objects from Mas d’Azil include many of the first 
importance (see Fig, 168), The chief collection is at Saint-Germain-en- 
Laye; there is also a collection at the Mairie in the village of Mas d’Azil. 


362 HUMAN ORIGINS 


Masnaigre (Dordogne) 


Rock shelter in the commune of Marquay, near Laussel. 
Explored by Bourlon, beginning in 1909. 


References: Bourton, RA, xxiii, 254-268 (1913). 


Culture Sequence (Bourlon): 


3. Aurignacian, hearths 
2. Aurignacian, hearths, gravette type of flint blade 
1. Middle Aurignacian, hearths, Bouitou type 


Massat (Ariége) 


Two caves, an upper and a lower, at Massat. 
Explored by A. Fontan, Lartet and Christy, Garrigou. 


References: Fontan, AS, xlvi, 900-903 (1858); LARTET, ASN, 4th ser., 
XV, 177-253 (1861); GarRiIcou, BSA, 2d ser., i, 438-440 (1866); H. Le 
Hon, L’homme fossile, 2d edit. (Paris, 1868). 


Culture Sequence: 


2. Azilian 
1. Magdalenian 


Noted for engraving of a bear on a pebble (upper cave); and of a bear’s 
head on a baton of staghorn (lower cave). 


Mége (sce Teyjat) 
Menchecourt (see Abbeville) 
Metreville (Eure) 


Rock shelter known as the Abri du Mammouth, situated 30 m. above 
the level of the Seine at the village of Metreville, commune of Saint-Pierre- 
d’Autils. 

Explored by Georges Poulain in 1903-1905. 


References: PouLain, CIA, 430-444 (Monaco, 1906). 
Culture Sequence (Poulain): 


5. Neolithic, flint implements, potsherds; remains of red deer, 
Cervus capreolus, Sus scrofa, Canis domesticus; vegetal earth— 
0.35-2 m. 

4. Neolithic (Campignian), bone spatula, flint implements including 
a tranchet and scratchers; red deer, Sus scrofa, Cervus capreolus, 
Bos taurus; human lower jaw; reddish earth—o.35-0.5 m. 


Pee worn PHY OF PALEOLITHIC SITES 863 


3. Magdalenian, flint blades; Sus scrofa, red deer; loess—o.5—1.1 m. 
2. Magdalenian, flint blades; reindeer, mammoth 
1. Sterile layer 


Micoque, La (Dordogne) 


Fallen rock shelter in the commune of Tayac. 
Explored by E. Riviére, Chauvet, Cartailhac, Capitan, Peyrony, Hauser, 
Wiegers, ef al. 


References: CHAUVET and RIVIERE, AS, cxxiii, 401-403 (1896); CHAUVET 
and RiviERE, AFAS, 697 (Saint-Etienne, 1897); Capitan, REA, vi, 
406-416 (1896); Hauser, HP, vi, 9 pp (1908); PrEyrony, REA, xviii, 
380-382 (1908). 


Culture Sequence: 


3. Upper Acheulian, beautiful pointed cleavers, (see Fig. 47); horse 
abundant 

2. Rubbish resembling breccia, almost sterile 

1. Atypic Acheulian, horse, Bos, Cervus elaphus. Wiegers claims to 
have found Rhinoceros merckii, presumably at this level 


Montastruc (see Bruniquel) 


Montfort (Ariége) 


Rock shelters on the Salat river north of Saint-Girons, opposite the 
village of Saint-Lizier. 
Explored by Ed. Filhol, Miquel, F. Regnault. 


References: REGNAULT, Rev. des Pyrénées, v, Nos. 5 and 6 (1893); Car- 
TAILHAC, Anthr., vii, 309-318 (1896); BEGOUEN, CUGUILLERE, and 
MIQUEL, RA, xxxii, 230-232 (1922). 


Culture Sequence (Cartailhac): 


3. Neolithic 
2. Azilian 
1. Magdalenian, engravings on stone and bone 


Noted for small harpoons found elsewhere only at the Grotte des Forges 
at Bruniquel and the rock shelter of Raymonden at Chancelade; also for 
the vertebra of a deer pierced by a flint weapon; and a human vertebra 
(see Fig. 319) pierced by a quartzite implement (found in talus near the 
cave). 


364 HUMAN ORIGINS 


Montiéres (see Amiens) 
Moru (Seine-et-Oise) 


Sand and gravel pit in the Oise valley (above the Cergy pit). 
Explored by d’Ault du Mesnil, e¢ al. 


Stratigraphy (Breuil): 
2. Mousterian, recent loess 
1. Chellean, gravels 


Moulin-Quignon (see Abbeville) 
Moustier, Le (Dordogne) 


Rock shelters or caves in the commune of Peyzac: the classic station 
from which the Mousterian Epoch takes its name is 200 m. (656.6 ft.) from the 
Vézére river, and 24 m. (78.8 ft.) above it; there is also a lower station. 


Fig. 54;) 


Explored by Lartet and Christy in Nov. 1863, Bourlon, Peyrony, 


Hauser. 


References: LARTET and Curisty, R. Arch., ix, 238-239 (1864); LARTET 
and Curisty, Relig. aquit. (1865-75); KiaAatscH and HAvuseEr, AA, 
N.F., vii, 287-297 (1909); Bourton, RP, v, No. 6, 11 pp. (1910); ibid., 
vi, 20 pp. (Oct.—Dec., 1911); PEvyRony, ‘‘Aprés une grande crue préh. 


de la Vézére,’”’ Rev. géogr. commerciale, 7 pp. (Bordeaux, 1914). 


Culture Sequence (Peyrony): 


I. Classic station 
7. Upper Aurignacian 
6. Lower Aurignacian 
5. Late Mousterian 
4. Layer of waterworn objects 
3. Upper Mousterian 


II. Station at lower level, (see Figs. 55 and 56) 
Middle Aurignacian 

Lower Aurignacian 

Late Mousterian 

Layer of waterworn objects 

Upper Mousterian 

. Mousterian, cleavers; human skeleton 
. Mousterian 


HNwOR UM AN 


Mouthe, La (Dordogne) 


Cavern at the village of La Mouthe, commune of Tayac, a little more 


than 1 km. (0.6 mi.) south of Les Eyzies. 
Explored by E. Riviére. 


STRATIGRAPHY OF PALEOLITHIC SITES 365 


References: RiviERE, AS (1895-1897, 1901-1903); RiIviiRE, Rev. scien- 
lifigue, 526(1896); ibid., 492 (1901); RiviERE, BSA, 4th ser., viii, 302-329 
(1897); ibid., x, 554-563 (1899); RiviERE, BMSA, sth ser., ii, 500-517 
(1901); ibid., 5th ser., iv, 191-196 (1903); RivimeRE, Les parois gravées et 
peintes de la grotte de la Mouthe (Paris, 1903, 2d edit., 1905); RIVIERE, 
Pt, Nos (1903): 


Culture Sequence: 
5. Neolithic 
. Magdalenian 
. Solutrean (de Mortillet) 
. Aurignacian 
. Mousterian 


eH NW Bb 


The cavern of La Mouthe was seen by Riviére for the first time in 1894. 
Edouard and Gaston Berthoumeyrou, workmen employed by Riviére, 
entered the cavern in April, 1895, and discovered the first engravings. 
At that time the entrance was so small that one could pass only by crawling. 
ihe eavern is a natrow, natural corridor, 220 m. (722.3 ft.) in length. 
The mural art begins at a distance of 93 m. (305.3 ft.) from the entrance 
and continues at intervals to a depth of 128 m. (420.3 ft.). The figures 
comprise simple engravings as well as those to which red or black color 
has been added. They include the mammoth, wild goat, bison, horse, etc. 
In the Upper Paleolithic deposits, at a distance of about 7 m. (23 ft.) from 
the entrance, a stone lamp was found in 1899. On the outer surface or back 
of this lamp is an engraved figure of the wild goat (see Fig. 141). 


Murat (Lot) 


Rock shelter near Rocamadotr. 
Explored by the Abbé A. Lemozi. 


Culture Sequence: Seven layers of Magdalenian deposits, in all of which 
harpoons and bone needles are found. 


Muids, Le (Loiret) 


Surface station on the plateau of Sologne. 
Explored by A. M. Munsch from 1900. 


References: Bourton, RP, i, No. 9 (1906). 


Culture Sequence (Bourlon): 


3. Vegetal earth 
2. Early Neolithic 
1. Magdalenian 


Breuil considers that the lowest layer is Azilian. 


366 HUMAN ORIGINS 


Neschers (Puy-de-Déme) 


Rock shelter at Blanzat on the slopes of Mount Tartaret. 
Explored by the Abbé Croizet, Pommerol, Boule, e¢ al. 


References: Pomet, BSGF, ist ser., xiv, 206 (1843); Pommerror, AFAS, 
ii, 661-668 (1876); BouLe, La géogr., xiii, 359-363 (1906). 


Culture Sequence: 


3. Magdalenian, engraving of horse on reindeer horn 
2. Volcanic deposit 
1. Mousterian 


Niaux (Ariége) 


Great cavern in the commune of Niaux, near Tarascon. 
Explored by Cartailhac, Breuil, et al. 


References: CARTAILHAC and BREvIL, Anthr., xix, 15-46 (1908). 


Culture Sequence: 


2. Neolithic, pottery 
1. Paleolithic, mural art 


Ombrive, L’ (Ariége) 


Cavern near Niaux, first visited by Noulet in 1826. 
Explored by Noulet in 1862, Garrigou, Rames, Filhol, e¢ al. 


References: Noutet, Archives du Musée hist. nat. Toulouse, 89-128 (1882). 


Culture Sequence: 


3. Bronze Age 
2. Neolithic 
1. Paleolithic, mural art 


Olha (Basses-Pyrénées) 


Rock shelter on the left bank of the Olha, near Cambo. 
Explored by E. Passemard. 


References: PASSEMARD, AFAS, 553-560 (Strasbourg, 1920). 


Culture Sequence: 


9. Upper Mousterian, scrapers, points, bone compressors, all 
abundant; same fauna as in No. 7 

8. Sterile layer 

7. Upper Mousterian, small scrapers and points; reindeer, Rhinoc- 
eros tichorhinus, Cervus elaphus, horse, ox 


STRATIGRAPHY OF PALEOLITHIC SITES 367 


6. Sterile layer 


Mousterian, scrapers, points, bone compressors rare, no cleavers; 
Cervus elaphus, horse, ox 
Sterile layer 


. Mousterian, hearths and abundant industry, small flint cleavers, 


fine scrapers, bone compressors; Rhinoceros merckii, Cervus 
elaphus, Bos, horse, Hyaena 


. Mousterian, cleavers, scrapers, bone compressors; Rhinoceros 


merckii, Cervus elaphus, Bos, horse, Hyaena spelaea 


. Atypic Mousterian, Bos, Cervus akin to C. elaphus 


Pair-non-Pair (Gironde) 


Cave at Marcamps. 
Explored by Francois Daleau following discovery by him in 188r. 


References: DALEAU, Actes Soc. arch. Bordeaux, 236 (1897); G. DE Mor- 
TILLET, REA, viii, 20-27 (1898). 


Culture Sequence: 


Pp 


HPHwst nn 


Proto-Solutrean, stone industry characterized by pedunculate 
points similar to those from Font-Robert, Spy, and Pont-a-Lesse 


. Upper Aurignacian 


Upper Aurignacian 


. Upper Aurignacian 

. Aurignacian, imitation Cypraea carved from ivory 
. Aurignacian 

. Mousterian 


The cave was almost completely filled by deposits having a total thick- 
ness of 4.5 m. (14.8 ft.). Horizons 4, 5, and 6 are scarcely separable, but 
all belong to the close of the Aurignacian. The mural engravings belong 
to the Middle Aurignacian (see Fig. 114); at least fourteen of them are 
determinable. Among the faunal remains, those of the bison predominate. 
The collections are in the private museum of Francois Daleau at Bourg-sur- 


Gironde. 


Papeterie, La (Charente) 


Cave in the commune of Puymoyen. 
Explored by Chauvet. 


References: CHauvet, BSAHC, 7 pp. (Apr., 1907). 


Culture Sequence (Chauvet): 


2. 
I. 


Magdalenian 
Mousterian, sling stones similar to those from La Quina 


368 HUMAN ORIGINS 


Pech de Bertrou (Dordogne) — 


Station in the commune of Tayac, near La Mouthe. 
Explored by D. Peyrony. 


References: Pryrony, AFAS, ii, 901-903 (Angers, 1903). 


Stratigraphy (Peyrony): 
2. Neolithic 
1. Chellean 


Pech (or Pey) de l’Aze (Dordogne) 


Cave 5 km. from Sarlat. 
Explored by Lartet and Christy, Peyrony. 


References: LarTET and Curisty, R. Arch., ix, 236-237 (1864); CAPITAN 
and Pryrony, REA, xix, 402-404 (1909). 
Culture Sequence: 


Upper Mousterian, skull of child 5 or 6 years old 
1. Mousterian, cleavers 


Petit-Puymoyen, Le (Charente) 


Escarpment station and small rock shelter in the commune of Puymoyen, 
near the cave of Papeterie. 
Explored by A. Favraud and A. Hurtel. 
References: Favraup, REA, xviii, 46-66 (1908); SIFFRE, ibid., 66-72 
(1908). 
Culture Sequence: 
2. Upper Mousterian, bone compressors; human maxillaries 


1. Lower Mousterian, breccia, cleavers. 


Fauna: reindeer, horse, Bos, wolf, Canis, fox. 


Pis de la Vache (Lot) 


Cave at the Chateau de la Forge near Souillac. 
Explored by Rupin, Viré, Bouyssonie. 
Culture Sequence (Viré): 


2. Magdalenian, batons, bone needles 
1. Mousterian 


PorextiGRAPHY OF PALEOLITHIC SITES 369 


Placard, Le (formerly called Rochebertier) (Charente) 


Cave near Rochebertier in the commune of Vilhonneur. (See Fig. 252.) 
Explored by A. Fermond, A. de Maret, et al. 


References: FERMOND, Mat., 2d ser., ix, 5-12 (1874); BourGeEois and 

- DELAUNAY, ibid., x, 191-192 (1875); DE Maret, CAF (Vienne, 1870); 
DE Maret, Mat., xvi, 33-34 (1879); CHauvet, BSAHC, 248 (1806); 
A. DE Mortitiet, CPF, 241-267 (Vannes, 1906); BREUIL and OBER- 
MAIER, Anthr., xx, 523-530 (1909). 


Culture Sequence (Breuil): 


8. Neolithic 

. Upper Magdalenian, (see F’g. 179) 
. Lower Magdalenian 
. Lower Magdalenian 
. Lower Magdalenian 
. Upper Solutrean 

. Lower Solutrean 

. Mousterian 


(See Figs. 97, 175 and 253.) 


H NW PN ON 


Entire deposit some 8 m. (26.2 ft.) thick. Sterile layers alternate with 
culture deposits. Objects found at Placard include batons and fine flint 
points of Solutrean agé; bone flutes found by Fermond, which resemble 
those of the Mandan Indians; a needlecase made of bird bone and filled 
with bone needles, discovered by de Maret. The principal collections 
from Placard are at Saint-Germain, Toronto, and Larochefoucauld (in the 
possession of Dr. l’ Homme). 


Plage du Havre, La (Seine-Inférieure) 


Submarine station near the Boulevard Maritime and the Batterie des 
Huguenots. | 
Explored by Georges Romain. 


References: RomAIN, REA, iv, 150-153 (1894); Rutot, CPF, 2d session, 
61-66 (Vannes, 1906). 


Stratigraphy (Romain): 
5. Stony deposit 
4. Yellow sand, numerous marine shells 
3. Thin shelly deposit 
2. Relatively thick sandy deposit, flint implements of Acheulian 
and Mousterian types at base 
1. Yellowish clay, fossil remains including Elephas primigenius 


370 HUMAN ORIGINS 


Planche-Torte (Corréze) 


Several caves in the valley of the Planche-Torte near Brive. 
Explored by the Abbés L. Bardon, J. and A. Bouyssonie. 


References: BArRDoN, J. and A. BouyssoniE, REA, xvi, 170-175, 401-411 
(1906); ibid., xvii, 120-144 (1907); ibid, xx, 28-40, 60-71 (1910); 7bid., 
Xxx, 177-189 (1920); BREUIL, RP.iv, 33 (1900), 


Culture Sequence: 
I. Lacoste—six Aurignacian horizons 


II. Pré-Aubert (called by Breuil, Lacoste IT) 
4. Solutrean 
3. Solutrean 
2. Aurignacian 
1. Aurignacian 
III. Combe a Negre 
2. Solutrean 
1. Aurignacian 


IV. Grotte de Champs 


V. Coumba-del-Bouitou 
3. Neolithic, potsherds, stone mortar 
2. Aurignacian 
1. Aurignacian, Mousterian forms persisting (see Fig. 80) 


In Nos. 1 and 2 flint implements to the number of 14,000 were found. 


VI. Raysse 
1. Aurignacian 


VII. Grotte des Morts 
1. Aurignacian, engraving of wild goat on bone; only cave in the 
valley, in which bones have been preserved 


VIII. Grotte de Bellet 
1. Aurignacian, engraving of a hind on stone 


Planes, Les (Charente) 


Sand pits in the lowest valley terrace (4th), commune of Saint-Yrieix, 
about 5 km. (3.1 mi.) from Angouléme. 
Explored by. V. Commont, Chauvet, e¢ al. 


References: Favraup, BSAHC, (1912). 


Stratigraphy: 
3. Aurignacian 
2. Mousterian 
1. Acheulian 





Peewee APA Y OF PALEOLITHIC SITES 371 


Plantade (see Bruniquel) 


Poron des Cuéches, Le (Céte d’Or) 


Rock shelter near the summit of Nan-sous-Thil mountain. 
Explored by Ch. Boyard. 


References: Boyarp, AF AS, 614-619 (Dijon, 1911); ibid., 512-522 (Nimes, 
IQI2). 


Culture Sequence (Boyard): 
8. La Téne (Iron Age) 
. Robenhausian (Neolithic), traces of Hallstatt Epoch at top 
. Sterile deposit 
. Tardenoisian 
. Sterile deposit 
. Sandy deposit, bones of small rodents 
. Bone breccia 
. Magdalenian 


HnowWhN DAN 


Pré-Aubert (see Planche-Torte) 


Quina, La (Charente) 


Rock shelters and caves on the Voultron in the commune of Gardes, 
near Villebois-Lavalette. The south station is of Aurignacian age; the 
north station is the important one. 

Explored by Chauvet in 1872; by Dr. Henri-Martin since 1905. 


References: CHAuvET, BSAHC, 303-336 (1896); A. DE MortTILLet, 
HP, iv, 231-238 (1906); CHauvetT, BSAHC, 8 pp. (1907); HeENRI- 
MartTINn, BS PF, iti, 7 pp. (1906); HENRI-MartTIN, BouRLON, and G1IRAUx, 
ibid., iv (1907); HENRI-MArTIN, Recherches sur l’evolution du Mousterien 
dans le gisement de La Quina (Charente) (Paris, 1907); HENRI-MaArRTIN, 
Industrie osseuse, i (1907-1910); HENRI-MARTIN, CPF, 203-223 (Autun, 
1908); Henri-Martin, AF AS, 727-730 (Clermond-Ferrand, 1908); ibid. 
(Lille, 1909); HENRI-MARTIN, BSPF, vi, 303-310 (1909); ibid., vii, 391- 
397 (1910); Henri-Martin, AFAS (Toulouse, 1910); HENRI-MARTIN, 
A S, cliii, 728-730 (1911); HENRI-MaRTIN, clv, 982-983 (1912); HENRI- 
Martin, CPF, 125-128 (Tours, 1911); HENRI-MartTin, BSPF, viii, 615- 
626 (1011); ibid., ix, 389-424, 700-709 (1912); HENRI-Martin, AFAS 
(Nimes, 1912); HeENrI-MaArtTIN, CPF, 282-296 (Angouléme, 1913); 
HeEnrI-MarTIN, BSPF, x, 86-89, 540-543 (1913); HENRI-MARTIN, 
Anthr. (1921). 


HU HUMAN ORIGINS 


Culture Sequence (adapted from Henri—Martin): 


5. Final Mousterian 

4. Upper Mousterian (1) 5 

3. Upper Mousterian (2), cranium of eight-year-old child, (See Fig. 
230) 

2. Mousterian (3), clay, part of female skeleton, (see Figs. 228 and 


220) 
1. Mousterian (4), clay sands 


The shelters and caves were eight or ten meters (26.3-32.8 ft.) above 
the Voultron, which once flowed at the base of the escarpment. Kitchen 
refuse was thrown over the escarpment and mingled with the talus as it 
formed. Martin’s final Mousterian was left by an encampment on the talus. 

Fauna: Bos, reindeer, horse abundant; hyena, Bison, lion, fox (rare), 
wolf, red deer, Capridae. 


Raymonden (Dordogne) 


Rock shelter in the commune of Chancelade, 7 km. (4.4 mi.) northwest 
of Périgueux. (See Figs. 137 and 251.) 
Explored by Hardy and Féaux. 


References: FrAux, Bull. Soc, arch, et hist. Périgord, 42 (1875); Harpy, 
ibid., 66 (1891); Trestut, Recherches anthr. sur le squelette Quatern. de 
Chancelade (Dordogne) (Lyon, 1889); BreutL, REA, xv, 154-155 (1905). 


Culture Sequence: 


4. Magdalenian, many artifacts and fossil animal remains; loam 
with central hearth—o.55 m. 

3. Magdalenian, grayish hearth rich in flint and bone implements— 
o.4 m. 

2. Yellow earth—o.37 m. 

1. Magdalenian, black, sandy hearth—o.37 m. 


A human skeleton was found at the base of deposit No. 1. It is said by 
Hardy to have rested in a grave sunk from the level of deposit No. 3; this 
view is opposed by de Mortillet, who insists that there was no sepulture 
and that the skeleton is contemporaneous with the lowest deposit. 


Rebiéres, Les (Dordogne) 


Rock shelters and a cave. 
Explored by E. Pittard, Montandon. 


References: Pittarp, REA, xvii, 429-433 (1907); ibid., 255-261 (1908); 
PitTARD, BMSA, sthser., viii, 65-71 (1907); PiTTARD, Bull. Soc. anthr., 





5 Numbers in parentheses are from Henri-Martin. 


een ar iy OR PALEOLITHIC SITES 373 


114-116 (Lyon, rorz); Pirrarp, CIA, i, 363-405, 450-488 (Geneva, 
1912); PirTaRD, Anthr., xxiii, 307-311 (1912). 
Culture Sequence: 
I. Les Rebiéres I 
1. Mousterian, groups of spheroidal stones resembling bolas 
II. Grotte des Carnassiers 
3. Mousterian 
2. Sterile deposit 
1. Mousterian 
III. Le Bonhomme 
2. Aurignacian 
1. Mousterian 
IV. Les Rebiéres II (or Durand-Ruel) 
2. Upper Aurignacian 
1. Middle Aurignacian, engraved pebble 
V. Recourbie 
1. Magdalenian 


Reilhac (sce Roussignol) 


Rey (Dordogne) 


Cavern 40 m. from Combarelles, in the valley of the Beune near Les 
Byzies. (See Fig. 177.) 
Explored by the Abbé Landesque and Riviere. 


References: RivirRE, AF AS, ii, 714-717 (Caen, 1874); ibid. (Lyon, 1906); 
Pryrony, BA, 212-215 (1909); MacCurpy, Amer. Anthr., N.S., xxv, 72- 
89 (1923). 


Culture Sequence (Peyrony): 


4. Post-Paleolithic 

3. Solutrean 

2. Aurignacian, bone points with cleft base 
1. Mousterian 


Rideaux, Les (see Lespugue) 


Riviére (Landes) 


Station on the north bank of the Adour, opposite the cave of Sordes. 
Explored by Dubalen. 


References: DuBALEN, BSPF, viii, 638-641 (1911); BREUIL, ibid., 665-668 
(1911). 


374 HUMAN ORIGINS 


Culture Sequence (Breuil): 


3. Magdalenian 
2. Solutrean 
1. Aurignacian 


The collections from Riviére are at Mont-de-Marsan. The engravings 
on bone are declared by Breuil to be frauds. 


Roc, Le, or La Grotte du Roc (Charente) 


Cave in the commune of Sers. 
Explored by A. Favraud. 


References: FAvraAup, REA, xviti, 407-423 (1908); BReEuIL, RP, iv, Nos. 
8, 9, I p. (1909). 
Culture Sequence: 


2. Solutrean 
1. Upper Aurignacian 


Roc de Combe-Capelle, Le (Dordogne) 


Rock shelter near the station of Combe-Capelle, and 1,500 m. (0.9 mi.) 
from Terme Pialat. 
Explored by Villeréal, Chastaing, Breuil, J. Bouyssonie. 


References: Brevit, RP, iv, Nos. 8, 9, § pp. (1900). 


Culture Sequence (Breuil): 
5. Upper Solutrean 
. Middle Solutrean 
. Transition from Aurignacian to Proto-Solutrean 
. Upper Aurignacian 
. Middle Aurignacian 


SS es, AS 


Roc de Saint-Christophe, Le (Dordogne) 


Rock shelter in the commune of Peyzac. 
Explored by D. Peyrony. 


Culture Sequence (Peyrony): 
6. Merovingian 
. Gallo-Roman 
. Epoch of La Téne (Iron Age) 
. Bronze Age 
. Neolithic 
. Upper Aurignacian 


HNHW Bw 


SPikeebiGRAPHY OF PALEOLITHIC SITES . 375 


Roche-au-Loup, La (Yonne) 


Cave 37 m. (121.5 ft.) above Merry-sur-Yonne; length, 4o m. (131.3 ft.), 
thickness of deposits, 5 m. (16.2 ft.). 
Explored by the Abbés Parat and Breuil. 


References: Parat, CIA, 63-78 (Paris, 1900); Breuit, RA, xxi, 68-70 
(1911). 


Culture Sequence (Parat. Breuil): 
4. Neolithic 
3. Magdalenian 
2. Lower Aurignacian 
1. Mousterian 


Rochebertier (see Placard) 


Roches, Les (Dordogne) 


Rock shelters in the valley of Les Roches, commune of Sergeac. 
Explored by Reverdit, Didon, Delage, Peyrony, Hauser, et al. 


References: REVERDIT, Station des Roches, commune de Sergeac (Toulouse, 
1882); Dipon, “L’abri Blanchard des Roches,” Bull. Soc. hist. arch. 
Périgord (1911); BouLeE, Anthr., xxv, 230 (1914). 


Culture Sequence (Didon): 
I. Blanchard, No. 1 
5. Vegetal earth 
. Sterile deposit 
. Middle Aurignacian 
. sterile deposit 
. Middle Aurignacian, batons; bone needles; bone compressors; 
ornaments of ivory, bone, reindeer horn, stone, shell, teeth; 
pitted stones; phallic emblem and representations of the vulva 


eb WH B 


Culture Sequence (Peyrony): 
II. Blanchard, No. 2 

3. Upper Aurignacian 

2. Upper Mousterian 

1. Middle Mousterian 


Culture Sequence (Peyrony): 
III. Castanet 
3. Middle Aurignacian 
2. Sterile deposit 
1. Middle Aurignacian 


376 HUMAN ORIGINS 


IV. Delage, or Roches-de-Sergeac 

2. Magdalenian, batons, bone needles 

1. Upper Aurignacian, implements of gravette type 
V. Assieur 

1. Upper Aurignacian 


VI. Labatut 

5. Upper Aurignacian 
4. Sterile deposit — 
3. Upper Aurignacian 
2. Sterile deposit 
1. Upper Aurignacian 

VII. Landesque, or Souquette 
2. Upper Aurignacian 
1. Middle Aurignacian 


Rochette, La (Dordogne) 


Large rock shelter in the commune of Saint-Léon-sur-Vézére. 
Explored by O. Hauser, F. Wiegers, e¢ al. 


References: Hauser, Le Périgord préh., 22 pp., 7 plans (Le Bugue, 1911). 
Culture Sequence (Wiegers): 


3. Aurignacian, part of human skeleton and eleven teeth belonging 
to three other individuals 

2. Mousterian 

1. Acheulian 


Roussignol, or Les Pouzats (Lot) 


Cave on the property of Mons. Roussignol at Reilhac, 10 km. (6.25 mi.) 
from the railway station of Gramat. 
Explored by Bergougnoux; Cartailhac and Boule. 


References: BERGOUGNOUX, Les temps préhs. en Quercy © (Cahours, 1887); 
CARTAILHAC and Bouter, La Grotte de Reilhac, Causses du Lot, 69 pp. 
(Lyon, 1880). 


Culture Sequence (G. de Mortillet): 


5. Robenhausian, flint saw with notched ends, polished stone axes, 
staghorn socket, potsherds 

Azilian, harpoons 

Magdalenian 

Solutrean 

Mousterian 


Hb WwW BB 











6 Quercy is approximately the equivalent of Lot and Tarn-et-Garonne. 


STRATIGRAPHY OF PALEOLITHIC SITES 377 


The cave was practically emptied of its contents by the proprietor before 
it came to the attention of archeologists. Among the Paleolithic objects 
discovered were a sculptured reindeer horn with perforation and suggestion 
of an eye and mouth at one end; baton of reindeer horn; harpoons of 
reindeer horn; engraved bone, Solutrean and Mousterian flint implements. 


Ruth, Le (Dordogne) 


Rock shelter near Le Moustier. Total thickness of deposits, 5.35 m. 
Explored by Robert Pagés and D. Peyrony. 


References: PEyrony, REA, xix, 156-176 (1909); Breuit, RP, iv, 
Nos. 8, 9 (1909). 


Culture Sequence (Breuil): 


. Humus 

. Lower Magdalenian 

. Sterile deposit 

. Upper Solutrean, points with lateral notch at base, hearth 
. Middle Solutrean, laurel-leaf points, hearths 

. Lower Solutrean 

. Nearly sterile deposit 

. Upper Aurignacian, gravette blades 

. sterile deposit 

. Middle Aurignacian 


a 
ie) 


HNnHWwWHE NN AN CO”MO 


Saint-Acheul (sce Amiens) 


Saint-Just-des-Marais (Oise) 


Rebour sand pit 2 km. (1.25 mi.) from Beauvais. 
Explored by L. Thiot. 


References: Tuiot, BSPF, i, 194-201 (June, 1904). 


Stratigraphy (Thiot): 
4. Neolithic 
3. Magdalenian 
2. Mousterian 
1. Acheulian 


Saint-Marcel (Indre) 
Rock shelter of La Garenne and caves of La Garenne on the right bank 


of the Creuse below Argenton. One cave at Saint-Marcel was destroyed 
in 1848 during the construction of the railway between Chateauroux and 


378 


HUMAN ORIGINS 


Argenton; the contents, including many bones and chipped flints, were 
used as a filling for the roadbed. 
Explored by M. Benoist in 1896. 


References: BreuIL, Anthr., xiii, 145-165 (1902). 


Culture Sequence: 
I. Rock shelter 


as 
. Magdalenian, yellow clay (continuation of No. 5); galloping 


Talus 


reindeer engraved on schist 


5. Magdalenian, traces of hearth; simple engravings, round-shafted 
harpoons 

4. Magdalenian, brown clay; simple engravings 

3. Magdalenian, broken bones; simple engravings at base of deposit 

2. Magdalenian, hearth; engravings with contours cut away 

1. Magdalenian, red deposit, hearth; bone pendants; engravings 
with contours cut away 

II. Cave 
4. Gallo-Roman 
3. Neolithic 


ee 


Yellow clay (within), probably Aurignacian and Magdalenian, 
bone needle, pointed implements, ivory spatula 


. Yellow clay near entrance, probably Mousterian 


The Benoist collections are now at the National Museum of Antiquities 
at Saint-Germain. 


Saint-Prest (Eure-et-Loir) 


Sand and gravel pit in the valley of the Eure near Chartres. 
Explored by Desnoyers in 1863, the Abbé Bourgeois in 1867, e¢ al. 


References: AspBE Bourceots, AS, lxiv, 47-48 (1867); A. Rutot, La Pré- 
histoire, Part I (Brussels, 1918). 


Stratigraphy (adapted from Rutot): 


Howth UU Aw 0 


Brick earth 

Recent loess 

Loess (probably ancient) 

Acheulian, flinty layer 

Lower Quaternary 

Pre-Chellean (Reutelian of Rutot), flinty layer 


. Upper Pliocene, fluvial sands; Elephas meridionalis 
. Eolithic (Saint-Prestian of Rutot), gravel bed 


STRATIGRAPHY OF PALEOLITHIC SITES 379 


Sergeac (see Les Roches) 


Solutré (Sadne-et-Loire) 


Two stations, Le Crot du Charnier and La Terre Séve, commune of 
Solutré, near Macon. Type station of the Solutrean Epoch (see Figs. 84-86.) 

Explored by H. de Ferry and A. Arcelin, Abbé Ducrost, Capitan and 
Guillain. 


References: DE Ferry, R. Arch., xvii, 207-212 (1868); DE FERRY and 
ARCELIN, Le Maconnais préh. (Macon, 1870); ARCELIN and Dvucrost, 
BSA, 486-489 (1876); Ducrost and Lartet, Arch. Mus. hist. nat. de 
Lyon, i, 1-36 (1872); Broca, BSA, 2d ser., viii, 819-836 (1873); Broca, 
AFAS, 651-662 (Lyon, 1873); ARCELIN, F. (with L. Mayet), RA, xxxiv, 
38-66 (1924); Hamy, BSA, 2d ser., viii, 842-850 (1873); ARCELIN, Anthr., 
i 20571500); CAPITAN, REA, ix, 23 (1890); BREvtL, RP, ii, Nos. 6, 7 
(1907); ibid., iv, Nos. 8, 9 (1909); F. ARCELIN, Assoc. régionale pour le 
dévelop. des recherches de paléontol. humaine et de préh., Bull. No. 1, 1-16 
(Lyon, 1923). 


Culture Sequence: 


I. Crot du Charnier 
6. Magdalenian 
. Solutrean 
. Solutrean 
. Upper Aurignacian, magma of horse bones (Equus przewalskii) 
. Aurignacian, hearths 
1. Aurignacian, hearths 
Il. Terre Séve 
4. Vegetal earth 
3. Horse bones 
2. Magdalenian, quantities of flint implements 
1. Solutrean 


nw tbN 


Sordes (Landes) 


I. Rock shelter of Dufaure between Sordes and Cassabée. 
Explored by H. Breuil, P. Dubalen, J. de Laporterie. 


References: Brevuit and DuBALEN, REA, xi, 251-268 (1901). 


Culture Sequence (Breuil): 
3. Azilian, flat harpoon of staghorn 
2. Magdalenian, two engravings on stone 
1. Magdalenian, harpoons with two rows of lateral barbs 


II. Cave of Duruthy; also caves of Le Grand Pastou and Le Petit 
Pastou. Explored by Pottier, L. Lartet, Chaplain-Duparc. 


380 HUMAN ORIGINS 


References: LARTET and CHAPLAIN-DupPARC, Mat., 2d ser., ix, 101-167 
(1874); LARTET and CHAPLAIN-Duparc, CIA, i, 302-310 (Stockholm, 
1874) LARTET and CHAPLAIN-DupPARC, BSA, 2d ser., ix, 516-525 (1874); 
Hamy, ibid., 525-531. 


Culture Sequence: 


4. Neolithic, some 33 human skeletons of a type similar to the 
Cro-Magnon race, including a trephined skull 

3. Magdalenian, brown hearth 

2. Magdalenian, black hearth 

1. Magdalenian 





In the Magdalenian deposits, Lartet and Chaplain-Duparc found a 
human skull and part of the skeleton; also about fifty canines, three of 
Felis, the remainder of Ursus ferox, nearly all of which were perforated and 
decorated with incised designs, geometric for the most part, but including 
a realistic figure of a fish and one of a seal. 


Soucy (Dordogne) 


Rock shelter near Lalinde. 
Explored by Delugin, Soulas, Tarel. 


References: G. DE MormtiLitet, L’homme, ii, 731 (1885); Taret, HP, x, 
129-139 (1912); CFG, 177 


Culture Sequence: 


6. Talus 

. Upper Magaa.enian 
. Sterile layer 

. Upper Magdalenian 
. sterile layer 

. Upper Magdalenian 


HH W DMN 


Sous-Sac (Ain) 


Rock shelters in the commune of Craz. 
Explored by the Abbé Tournier and Ch. Guillon. 


References: TouRNIER and GuILLon, Les abris de Sous-Sac et les grottes 
del’ Ain a Vépoque néolithique (Bourg, 1903). 


Culture Sequence: 
4. Vegetal earth 
3. Neolithic, pottery 
2. Neolithic, hearth 
1. Late Magdalenian or Azilian, sandy tuff; human-sepulture 


Pirewiok Arh yo OF PALEOLITHIC SITES 381 


Spugo (Haute-Garonne) 


A group of caves at Ganties-les-Bains, near the chateau of Montespan 
and not far from Saint-Martory. 
Explored by Marcel Basset and Jean Cazedessus in 1921 and 1022. 


References: CazEDESSUS, Gisements préhistoriques de la Spugo de Ganties- 
les-Bains, Hte.-Garonne (Saint-Gaudens, 1923). 


Culture Sequence: 
3. Iron Age (Epoch of La Téne). 
2. Neolithic, perfect pottery vessel 
1. Magdalenian, engravings, bone needles, batons, etc. 


Tabaterie (Dordogne) 


Station in the commune of Boulouneix, near Brantéme. 
Explored by Capitan, Peyrony, and Bourrinet. 


Culture Sequence: 

5. Aurignacian 
Aurignacian 
Mousterian 
Mousterian, cleavers 
Mousterian 


BNW 


Teyjat (Dordogne) 


I. Cavern of La Mairie, (see Figs. 95 and 131). 
Explored by Perrier du Carne, Capitan, Breuil, Bourrinet, Peyrony. 


References: PERRIER DU CARNE, La grotte de Teyjat, gravures magdaleniennes 
(Paris, 1889); CAPITAN, BREUIL, and PEyrony, REA, xiii, 364-367 
(1903); CAPITAN, BREUIL, PEYRONY, and BourRiINnet, ibid., xviii, 
153-173, 198-218 (1908); ibid., xix, 62-76 (1909); CAPITAN, BREUIL, 
PEYRONY, and BourRinet, CIA, i, 498-514 (Geneva, 1912). 


Culture Sequence (Breuil): 
4. Sterile deposit 
3. Upper Magdalenian, harpoons with two rows of lateral barbs 
2. Sterile deposit 
1. Lower Magdalentan 


Engravings on the blocks of stalagmite belong to the Middle Mag- 
dalenian (see Fig. 120). 

II. Rock shelter of Mége, discovered in 1903 by Bourrinet. 

Explored by Bourrinet, Capitan, Breuil, Peyrony. 


References: CAPITAN, Brevuit, Bourrinet, and Pryrony, REA, xvi, 
196-212 (1906); ibid., xix, 62-76 (1900). 


382 HUMAN ORIGINS 


Culture Sequence (Breuil): 
2. Several sterile layers 
1. Middle Magdalenian, baton of staghorn with remarkable engrav- 
ings, including figure of horse and manikins wearing chamois- 
head masks (see Fig. 167) 


Tilloux (Charente) 


Station in a Quaternary alluvial deposit near Gensac-la-Pallue, south 
Bourg-Charente and not far from Jarnac. 
Explored by M. Boule and G. Chauvet. 


References: CHAUVET, BSAHC (July 16, 1895); BouLr, Anthr., vi, 497- 
509 (1895); CapiITAN, REA, v, 380-388 (1895) 


Stratigraphy (Capitan): 
3. Neolithic 


2. Acheulian 
1. Chellean 


Boule insists that the Paleolithic deposits can not be separated into two 
horizons since Chellean and Acheulian types and associated fauna (Elephas 
meridionalis, E. antiquus, and E. primigenius) occur together. 


Tourasse, La (Haute-Garonne) 


Cave near Saint-Martory. 
Explored by L. Darbas and Chamaison. 


References: Hartfé, Anthr., v, 402-406 (1894); CARTAILHAC, ibid., vii, 
312-316 (1896); G. and A. DE MormTILtet, Préh., 238. 


Culture Sequence: 


2. Neolithic, human skeletons; human vertebra pierced by a flint 
arrowhead 
1. Azilian, painted pebbles 


De Mortillet chose La Tourasse as the type station for the epoch following 
the Magdalenian (Tourassian), but practically all other authors have ac- 
cepted Piette’s term ‘‘ Azilian”’ instead. 


Trilobite, Le (see Arcy-sur-Cure) 


Trois-Fréres (Ariége) 


Cavern in the commune of Montesquieu-Avantes, discovered in July, 
1914, by Count Begouen and his three sons, hence the name. ‘The dis- 


MePeeroknriyY OF PALEOLITHIC SITES — 383 


covery was by means of a pit from the top; the adjacent cave of Enléne 
is now used as the entrance. 
Explored by Count Begouen and his sons. 


References: BEGOUEN, AJB, 303-310 (1920). 


Culture Sequence: 
2. Magdalenian 


1. Aurignacian 


There are some four hundred mural engravings, two of which are partly 
outlined in black (the sorcerer and a lion); portable art objects, batons, 
bone needles (see Fig. 151). 


Tuc d’Audoubert (Ariége) 


Cavern in the commune of Montesquieu-Avantes, discovered in July, 
1912, by Count Begouen and his sons (see Figs. 145 and 146). 
Explored by Count Begouen and his sons. 


References: BEGOUEN, CIA, i, 489-497 (Geneva, 1912); BEGOUEN, Anthr., 
XXill, 657-665 (1912). 
Culture Sequence: 
2. Magdalenian 


1. Aurignacian 


Bisons modeled in clay (see Fig. 148), mural engravings (see Figs. 147 and 
181), signs in color, claviform figures, portable art objects including horse 
and Cervidae with contours cut away. In some engravings the animals’ 
breath is represented by incised lines. Point with cleft base and its bone 
shaft some 15 cm. (5.9 in.) long, batons. 


Vache, La (Ariége) 


Cave on the left bank of the Vic-de-Sos, opposite Niaux, commune of 
Alliat. 
Explored chiefly by Garrigou. 


References: GARRIGOU, Grotte de la Vache (1867). 


Culture Sequence: 


2. Azilian, harpoons of staghorn 
1. Magdalenian, harpoons of reindeer horn, engravings on bone 


There are afew mural paintings. The Garrigou collections are in Foix. 


384 HUMAN ORIGINS 


Vachons, Les (Charente) 


Two rock shelters and a cave in the commune of Voulgézac; the site was 
formerly known as Dallignac. 
Explored by J. Coiffard. 


References: CoIrFARD, AF AS, 623-627 (Havre, 1914). 


Culture Sequence (Coiffard): 


I. Rock shelters 
4. Final Aurignacian 
3. Upper Aurignacian 
2. Upper Aurignacian 
1. Lower Aurignacian 
lie Cave 
1. Solutrean 


Villefranche-sur-Saone (Rhdéne) 


Station on the right bank of the Rhéne at Le Garret. 
Explored by the Abbé J. M. Beroud. 


References: Cl. SAvovE, Le Beaujolais préhistorique, 36 (1899); BEROUD, 
CPF, ix, to1-113 (Lons-le-Saunier, 1913). 


Stratigraphy (composite section): 


5. Wash 

Solutrean, blue marl 

Gravel, mammoth 

Warm Mousterian, Rhinoceros merckti 

. Clay of Saint-Céme (equivalent of Cromer Forest Bed) 


HN W BA 


GERMANY 


Andernach (Rhine) 


Loess station in Martinsberg, near Andernach on the Rhine. 
Explored by Koenen and H. Schaaffhausen. 


References: SCHAAFFHAUSEN, Verh. d. natur. hist. Verein, 39, 63 (Bonn, 
1883); WIEGERS, PZ, i, 18 (1909); DVD, 88-90, 205-206. 
Stratigraphy (Schmidt): 


2. Upper Magdalenian (see Fig. 176) 
1. Middle Magdalenian 


STRATIGRAPHY OF PALEOLITHIC SITES 385 


Bockstein (Wtrttemberg) 


Cave near Langenau. 
Explored by the Ulmer hist. Verein and R. R. Schmidt. 


References: Fraas, KB, 9-12 (1884); M. Horrnes, DME; OBERMAIER, 
Anthr., xvii, 61-62 (1906); DVD, 44-46, 173, 174. 
Culture Sequence (Schmidt): 


3. Upper Magdalenian 
2. Upper Aurignacian 
1. Early and Middle Aurignacian 


Buchenloch (Rhine) 


Cave on the Monterlei, near Gerolstein. 
Explored by E. Bracht in 1879. 


References: SCHAAFFHAUSEN, KB, 108-113 (1883); E. Bracut, Festschr. z. 
14ten anthr. Versamm. in Trier (1883); DVD, 76-77, 208. 


Culture Sequence (Schmidt): 


3. Lower Magdalenian 
2. Lower Aurignacian 
1. Lower Mousterian 


Ehringsdorf (see Taubach-Ehringsdorf) 


Hohlefels (Wurttemberg) 


Caves at Schelklingen and Hitten. 
Explored by O. Fraas and J. Hartmann in 1870-71 (Schelklingen); 
R. R. Schmidt (Hiitten). 


References: Dunovusset, BSA, 2d ser., vi, 317-318 (1871); Fraas, AA, 
V, 132, 173-213 (1872); DVD, 51-52, 174. 


Culture Sequence (Schmidt): 

I. Schelklingen _ 
3. Upper Magdalenian 
2. Middle Magdalenian 
1. Upper Aurignacian (?) 

II. Hutten 
2. Upper Magdalenian 
1. Middle Magdalenian 


Collections from Hohlefels bei Hiitten are at the University of Tubingen. 


386 HUMAN ORIGINS 


Hundisburg (Saxony) 


Station in the open at Neuhaldensleben, near Magdeburg. 
Explored by F. Wiegers. 


References: WIEcERS, ZE, xxxvii, 915-920 (1905); ibid., xxxix, 718-729 
(1907); WIEGERS, PZ, i, 3-6 (1909). 


Stratigraphy (Wiegers): 
to. Sandy loess, Wtrm 
. Sandy humus, Wtrm 
. Upper boulder clay (Geschiebemergel), Riss 
. Sandy marl (Mergelsande), Riss 
. Acheulian, coarse gravels, Mindel-Riss; flint artifacts; fine 
cleaver found in 1922; bones, shells 
5. Fine sandy clay, Mindel-Riss 
4. Sand with gravel banks (probably Acheulian); flint implements; 
Mindel-Riss 
3. Yellow sandy marl, Mindel 
2. Lower boulder clay, Mindel 
1. Tertiary clay 


CNET OO NO) 


Kartstein (Rhine) 


Two caves at Eiserfey near Mechernich. 
Explored by C. Rademacher. 


References: RADEMACHER, PZ, iii, 201-232 (1911); DVD, 75-76, 207-208. 


Culture Sequence (Rademacher): 


I. Large cave 

. Recent 

Roman 

. La Tene 

Magdalenian 

. Aurignacian, stone seats about a hearth 
Upper Mousterian 

Lower Mousterian 


Hye eeu an 


II. East entrance 

6. Neolithic 
. Magdalenian 
. Aurignacian 
Upper Mousterian 
Lower Mousterian 
Acheulian 


HnNwWP MN 


The collections from Kartstein are in the prehistoric museum at Cologne. 


Seek Pry OF PALEOLITHIC SITES 387 


Kastlhaing (Bavaria) 


Cavern in the Altmthl valley near Neu-Essing, some 10 km. (6.25 mi.) 
above Kelheim. 
Explored by J. Fraunholz and H. Obermaier from 1893-1907. 


References: FRAUNHOLZ, OBERMAIER, and ScHLossErR, BAUB, xviii, 119- 
164 (1911); DVD, 52-54, 178. 


Culture Sequence: 


rp eka an 


. Bronze Age 
. Neolithic 


Sterile layer 

Rodent fauna 
Middle. Magdalenian 
Cave-bear fauna 
Cave-bear fauna 


Klause (Bavaria) 


A group of caves four stories high, near Neu Essing, on the right bank 
of the Altmithl, a tributary of the Danube. , 

Explored by J. Fraunholz (who discovered them in 1903), Obermaier, 
Birkner, Wernert. 


References: OBERMAIER, Anthr., xxv, 254-262 (1914). 


Culture Sequence: 
I. Cave No. 1, at the top is a series of alcoves separated by rock prom- 


inences. 


on 


. Neolithic 
. Upper Magdalenian, flint implements, numerous bone imple- 


ments, bone needles, needlecases of bird bone, javelin points of 
reindeer horn with single or double bevel at the base, three 
batons of reindeer horn, harpoons with unilateral barbs, wands 
and pendants of ivory, perforated teeth; one of the most remark- 
able discoveries was a number of stone plaques (lithographic), 
colored somewhat after the manner of the painted pebbles from 
Mas d’Azil; reindeer fauna 


. Lower Magdalenian, numerous flint implements; awls and 


javelin points of bone; bone needles; perforated teeth; ivory 
pendant; many reindeer bones 


. Solutrean, laurel-leaf points, perforated teeth, engravings of 


mammoth on ivory; bones of the horse abound 


. Mousterian, flint implements; cave bear 


388 HUMAN ORIGINS 


II. Cave No. 2 is comparatively large but low and dark. The principal 
discovery was a human sepulture probably of Solutrean age; the skeleton 
was completely surrounded by a large mass of powdered ocher. Several 
art objects were found. In one corner were a series of broken plaques of 
lithographic stone (calcareous); on one of these the head and shoulders 
of a horse were engraved in fine lines. Although the stratigraphy is some- 
what mixed, the following epochs are represented: 


6. Neolithic 

. Upper Magdalenian 

4. Lower Magdalenian mixed; bone points, a needle, two javelin 
points with double bevel at base, a harpoon with unilateral barbs, 
several perforated teeth 

3. Solutrean, laurel-leaf points; human skeleton 

2. Mousterian, implements of poor quality of flint, including two 
cleavers 

1. Acheulian, numerous flint implements; a human tooth 


? 


On 


III. Cave No. 3, referred to as the Acheulian rock shelter, is small and 
was in part emptied of its contents a dozen years before being explored by 
Obermaier, ef al. Enough remained, however, to prove that the shelter 
had been occupied at various epochs from the Acheulian to and including 
the Neolithic. At the bottom was a virgin deposit containing a large 
quantity of Acheulian flint implements and many bones of the mammoth, 
rhinoceros, horse, etc. 

IV. Cave No. 4 was emptied of its contents more than a half century ago 
and transformed into acellar. Whatever of archeological remains it may 
have contained have been lost to science. 


Markkleeberg (Leipzig) 


sand and gravel pit near the city of Leipzig. 
Explored by K. H. Jacob. 


References: Jacos, PZ, iii, 116-122 (1911); JACOB, v, 331-339 (1913); 
WERTH, ZE, xlvii, 234-241 (1915); ibid., xlix, 54 (1917); F. WIEGERS, 
Diluvial prahistorie als geologische Wissenschaft, 110-114 (Berlin, 1920). 


Stratigraphy (Jacob): 


3. Upper Mousterian 
2. Mousterian 
1. Acheulian 


Wiegers holds that Jacob’s stratigraphy is based on typology rather 
than on geology. The principal collections are in the possession of Felix 
and Weule, Leipzig. 


STRATIGRAPHY OF PALEOLITHIC SITES 389 


Munzingen (Baden) 


Loess (recent) station near Freiburg on the Tuniberg, in Breisgau. 
Explored by G. Steinmann, F. Graeff, and Otto Schoetensack. 


References: Ecker, A4A, viii, 87-101 (1875); SCHOETENSACK, ibid., N.F., 
i, 69-77 (1903); MV, 274, 327. 
Stratigraphy: 
3. Neolithic, pottery—2.20 m. 
2. Sterile layer of loess—1.80 m. 


1. Lower Magdalenian, implements of jasper, bone, and horn; 
fragments of a baton—o.30 m. 


Ofnet (Bavaria) 


Two caves near the Wiirttemberg border between Holheim and Utz- 
memmingen. 
Explored by R. R. Schmidt. 


References: FrAas, KB, 57 (1876); ibid., 33 (1886); RANKE, BAUB, 108 
(1879); ibid., 46 (1880); OBERMAIER, Anthr., xvii, 60-61 (1906); 
BREUIL, zbid., xx, 207-214 (1909); DVD, 33-43, 172-173. 


Culture Sequence (Schmidt): 


I. Grosse Ofnet (see Fig. 408) 
10. Middle Ages 
. La Téne 
. Hallstatt 
Late Bronze Age 
Neolithic 
. Azilian-Tardenosian, sepultures (see Fig. 409) 
. Upper Magdalenian, fauna of lemming 
. Early Solutrean 
. Upper Aurignacian 
. Lower Aurignacian, fauna of lemming 


HHwWwtNM ANT COO 


II. Kleine Ofnet: same as for Grosse Ofnet except that horizons 5, 7, 
and 8 are lacking. 

Collections from Ofnet are in the Urgeschichtliches Forschungsinstitut, 
Tubingen. 


Propstfels (Hohenzollern) 


Cave near Beuron. 
Explored by R. R. Schmidt. 


References: R. R. Scumipt, KB, 75 (1908); DVD, 56-58, 177-178. 


390 HUMAN ORIGINS 


Culture Sequence (Schmidt): 
8. La Téne 

Bronze Age 

Sterile deposit 

Upper Magdalenian 

Sterile deposit 

. Upper Magdalenian 

. Upper Magdalenian 

. Sterile deposit 


Bnw fun an 


Rauberhohle (Bavaria) 


Cave at Etterzhausen in the Bavarian Oberpfalz. 
Explored by O. Fraas, K. von Zittel, and F. von Gtimbel in 1869-70. 


References: VircHow, V BGA, 5-7 (1871); ZITTEL, AA, v, 325-345 (1872); 
DVL ao ee te 
Culture Sequence (Schmidt): 


3. Post-Paleolithic, pottery 
2. Aurignacian 
1. Upper Mousterian 


Collections from the Rauber cave are at Freiburg, Ratisbon, Munich, 
Stuttgart, and London (British Museum). 


Rosenstein (Wtrttemberg) 


Cave near Heubach (Schwabische Alb). 
Explored by R. R. Schmidt. 
Culture Sequence (Schmidt): 


2. Magdalenian 
1. Aurignacian 


Schussenquelle (Wiurttemberg) 


Station in the open, 2 km. (1.25 mi.) from Schussenried. 
Explored by O. Fraas, who discovered it in 1865. 


References: FrAAS, Staatsanzeiger fiir Wiirttemberg, 249-250 (1867); R. R. 
ScumipT, KB, xli, 113-115 (1910); DVD, 54-56, 187-188. 


Stratigraphy (adapted from Fraas): 
6. Deposit of decayed brownish-yellow moss (Hypnum sarmento- 
sum); fossil animal remains—1.68 m. 
5. Tufa (no moss), snails (Helix pulchella, H. hispida Pupa 
muscorum)—1.12 m. 


STRATIGRAPHY OF PALEODGITHIC: SITES 391 


4. Peaty moss deposit—o.84 m. 

3. Middle Magdalenian, implements chiefly of flint and reindeer 
horn; engraved baton—1.12 m. 

2. Moss deposit (Hypnum grénlandicum dominant) 

1. Magdalenian, floor of black humus; numerous artifacts—r1.12 m. 


The principal collection is in Stuttgart. 


Sirgenstein (Wurttemberg) 


Cavern between Schelklingen and Blaubeuren. 
Explored by R. R. Schmidt. 


References: R. R. Scumipt, Der Sirgenstein und die diluvialen Kulturstatten 
Wiirttembergs, 47 pp. (Stuttgart, 1910); DVD, 18-31, 165-171. 


Culture Sequence (Schmidt): 


12. Middle Ages 

11. Iron Age 

1o. Bronze Age 

Upper Magdalenian, Lagomys pusillus 
Lower Magdalenian, Myodes torquatus 
Solutrean (transition) 

Upper Aurignacian 

Middle Aurignacian 

Lower Aurignacian 

. Myodes obensis horizon 

. Upper Mousterian, bone compressors 
Primitive Mousterian 


HNHWwFP a AN WO 


The Sirgenstein collection belongs to the Urgeschichtliches Forschungs- 
institut, Tibingen. 


Taubach-Ehringsdorf (Saxe-Weimar) 


Three stations in the Ilm valley deposits: one near Weimar, one at the 
hamlet of Taubach, and one at Ehringsdorf. 

Explored by A. Portis, G. Eichhorn, A. Goetze, H. Hahne, A Moller, 
H. Pohlig, M. Verworn, A. Weiss, E. Wust. 


References: GorTzE, ZE, xxiv, 366-377 (VBGA) (1892); SCHOETENSACK, 
ibid., 92-95 (1895); NEHRING, ibid., 338-340, 573-577 (VBGA) (1895); 
LISSAUER, ibid., xxxiv, 279-293 (VBGA) (1902); SCHWALBE, Anat. 
Anzeiger, xlvii, 337-345 (1914); VircHow, ZE, xlvi, 869-879 (1914); ibid., 
xlvii, 444-449 (1915); WERTH, ibid., xlviii, 119-131 (1916); PFEIFFER, 
ibid., xlix, 65-85 (1917); H. VircHow, Die menschliche Skeletreste aus 
dem Kampfeschen Bruch im Travertin von Ehringsdorf bet Weimar (Jena, 
Gustav Fisher, 1920). 


392 HUMAN ORIGINS 


Stratigraphy of Ehringsdorf (see Figs. 212 and 214): 


5. Neolithic, humus _ 

4. Upper travertine, very few stone implements; ashes; broken 
bones; temperate to cold fauna 

3. Porous layer, no implements, only a few shells 

2. Acheulian or ancient Mousterian, lower travertine; human lower 
jaws (see Figs. 213, 215 and 216) 

1. Sands and gravels (Riss) 


- 


The stratigraphy of Taubach and Ehringsdorf are alike in so far as the 
two oldest deposits are concerned: (1) 1 to 2 m. (3.3 to 6.6 ft.) of glacial 
(Riss) gravels and sands with occasional boulders; (2) lower travertine, 
a lacustrine deposit, 4 to 8 m. (13.1 to 26.2 ft.) thick, in the lower portion 
of which are remains of a cold fauna including mammoth and woolly 
rhinoceros; in its upper part, a warm fauna including Elephas antiquus, 
Equus, Rhinoceros merckii, shells, and plant remains; also the human lower 
jaws. 

At Taubach the culture-bearing portion of the lower travertine is at 
its base, and is thought by Obermaier to be of Chellean age; in the lower 
travertine at Ehringsdorf, the technique of chipping is Acheulian, but the 
forms are largely Mousterian. Above the lower travertine at Ehringsdorf 
comes the so-called ‘‘Pariser’’ (porous) loess, 1 m. (3.3 ft.) thick, represent- 
ing a steppe climate; and finally a thick deposit of upper travertine with 
remains not only of a forest fauna but also of the woolly rhinoceros and the 
southern rhinoceros (Rhinoceros merckit). 

The principal stations are the Kampfe (human lower jaws) and Fischer 
quarries at Ehringsdorf, and the Ulle quarry at Weimar. The industrial 
remains include Mousterian points and slug-shaped implements. A vessel 
made from the head of a femur of Rhinoceros merckit, found at Taubach, is 
now in the Romer Museum at Hildesheim. 


Weimar (sce Taubach-Ehringsdorf) 


Wildhaus (Nassau) 


Cave about 50 m. (164.2 ft.) from the Wildscheur cave, near Steeten 
an der Lahn. 
Explored by Cohausen in 1874. 


References: CoHAUSEN, Ann. d. Ver. f. Nass. Altertumskunde und 
Gesichtsforschung, xiii, 379-389 (1874); R. R. Scumipt, DVD, 85. 
Culture Sequence (Schmidt): 
2. Lower Magdalenian 
1. Upper Aurignacian 


The Wildhaus collection is in the Landes Museum, Wiesbaden. 


DERATIGRAPHY OF PALEOLITHIC SITES 393 


Wildscheuer Nassau) 


Cave at Steeten an der Lahn. 
Explored as early as 1820; by Amann, 1842; Thoma; Cohausen, 1874; 
Behlen, 1905; R. R. Schmidt, 1908. 


References: CoHAUSEN, ZE, vi, 173-174 (VBGA) (1874); R. R. Scumrpt, 
KB, xxxix, 77 (1908); DVD, 78-84, 208-209. 


Culture Sequence (Schmidt): 

. La Téne 

. Bronze Age 

. Neolithic 

. Lower Magdalenian, rodent fauna 
Upper Aurignacian 

. Middle Aurignacian 

. Rodent fauna 


BNO ee tn ONT 


The principal Wildscheuer coilections are in the Landes Museum at 
Wiesbaden, and in the Urgeschichtliches Forschungsinstitut at Tubingen. 


HUNGARY 


Balla (Bukk Mts.) 


Cave near Répashuta. 
References: H1LLEBRAND, W PZ, vi, 14-39 (1919). 


Culture Sequence (Hillebrand): 
3. Magdalenian, sepulture of a child 
2. Solutrean 
1. Proto-Solutrean or Aurignacian (?) 


Cioclovina (Transylvania) 


Dr. Martin Roska found flints of incontestable Aurignacian type and 
some that seem to be of Mousterian age; cave bear remains were abundant 
in these layers. 


Istallosk6 (Bukk Mts.) 
Cave near Szilvasvarad. 
References: H1ILLEBRAND, W PZ, vi, 14-39 (1919). 


Culture Sequence: 
1. Middle Aurignacian 


394 HUMAN ORIGINS 


Jankovich or Jankovics (Bikk Mts.) 
Cave at Bajot on the right bank of the Danube near Esztergom. 
References: HILLEBRAND, WPZ, vi, 14-39 (1919). 


Culture Sequence (Hillebrand): 


2. Magdalenian, bone needles 
1. Solutrean, stylistic animal head (?) of stone; decorated amulet 
of ivory 


Kiskevély (Budapest) 
Cave on the left bank of the Danube. 


References: HILLEBRAND, W PZ, vi, 14-39 (1919); BREvIL, Anthr., xxxiii, 
323-346 (1923). 


Culture Sequence (Breuil): 
4. Magdalenian 
3. Solutrean 
2. Middle Aurignacian 
1. Upper Mousterian 


Peské (Bikk Mts.) 
Cave a few kilometers south of Istallosk6 cave. 


Reference: BreEvIL, Anthr., xxxiii, 323-346 (1923). 


Culture Sequence (Breuil): 


2. Magdalenian 
1. Aurignacian 


Puskaporos (Bukk Mts.) 
Cavern near the cavern of Szeleta. 
References: HILLEBRAND, WPZ, vi, 14-39 (19109). 


Culture Sequence (Hillebrand): 


2. Magdalenian 
1. Proto-Solutrean 


Szeleta (Szinva Valley) 
Cave near Miskolcz. 
Explored by Dr. Kadic. 


References: OTto HERMAN, MAGW, xxiii, 77-82 (1893); HERMAN, ibid., 
XXXViil, 232-263 (1908). 


Peer kRAPHY. OF PALEOLITHIC. SITES. . 395 


Culture Sequence (Herman): 


4. Neolithic and later—1.o m. 

3. Paleolithic, gray clay with bones of cave bear—2.0 m. 
2. Paleolithic, red clay with bones of cave bear—2.0 m. 

1. Paleolithic, brown clay with bones of cave bear—2.o m. 


Among the stone implements discovered, are cleavers of Mousterian 
type and laurel-leaf blades of Proto-Solutrean and Solutrean types. 


ITALY 


Bosco (Tiber valley) 


Station in alluvial deposits. 
Explored by G. Bellucci. 


References: Brettucci, AABF, xliv, 289-324 (1914). 


Stratigraphy: 
3. Mousterian 


2. Acheulian 
t. Chellean 


Capri (Campania) 


Loess station in the open, near the Certosa, island of Capri. 
Explored by Bassani and Galdieri. 


References: Moccuti, CIA, i, 259-260 (Geneva, 1912). 


Stratigraphy (Mocchi): 
2. Volcanic deposit 
1. Chellean, cleavers, scrapers, knives, disks of flint and quartzite 
foreign to the island; interglacial fauna: Elephas antiquus, 
Rhinoceros merckii, Hippopotamus amphibius, Ursus spelaeus, 
Cervus elaphus, Equus caballus 


Quaternary deposits rest on a raised beach at an elevation of 130 m. 
(426.8 ft.) above present sea level. 


Cucigliana (Tuscany) 


Cave in the lower Arno valley at an altitude of some 50 m. (164 ft.) 


in the Pisano mountain. 
Explored by Acconci and Incontri. 


References: Moccut, CIA, i, 264 (Geneva, 1912). 


396 HUMAN ORIGINS 


Culture Sequence (Mocchi): 
4. Lower Magdalenian (?), Equus caballus, Cervus elaphus, Bos 
primigenius; depth of deposit—o.5-o0.8 m. 
3. Lower Aurignacian, same fauna as in No. 4. 
2. Lower Aurignacian, same fauna; depth of deposits in Nos. 3 and 
2—1.0-1.3 m. 
1. Mousterian, Elephas antiquus, Rhinoceros merckit, Ursus spelaeus, 
Equus caballus—t.o m. 


7 


Grimaldi (Liguria) 


Series of caves also known as Baoussé-Roussé (Balzi-Rossi or Red Rock), 
in the commune of Ventimiglia, near Mentone. 

Explored by A. Grand in 1845; F. Forel, E. Chantre, Moggridge in 
1862; Riviére, Broca, Costa de Beauregard, Julien and Bonfils, Villeneuve, 
Verneau, Boule. 


References: RIVIERE, Decouverte d’un squelette humain de l’époque paléo- 
lithique dans les cavernes des Baoussé-Roussé dites Grottes de Menton 
(Paris, Balliére et fils, 1873); zbid., De l’antiquité de V homme dans les 
Alpes-Maritimes (Paris, Balliére et fils, 1887); VERNEAU, Anthr., iii, 
513-540 (1892); ibid., xiii, 561-585 (1902); Piette, BMSA, sth ser., 
ili, 771-779 (1902); BOuULE and VERNEAU, Anthr., xvii, 257-320 (1906); 
L. DE VILLENEUVE, BOULE, VERNEAU, and CARTAILHAC, Les Grottes de 
Grimaldi (Baoussé-Roussé), 2 vols. in 4to (Monaco, 1906); BOULE, 
DE VILLENEUVE, CARTAILHAC, and VERNEAU, CIA, 57-86, 114, 135 
(Monaco, 1906); Rutot, BSBG, xxi (1907). | 


I. Grotte des Enfants, so-called because of skeletons of two children 
found there by E. Riviere. 


Culture Sequence: 
14. Magdalenian, or its equivalent in point of time 
13. Aurignacian, skeletons of two children now in the Catholic 
Institute, Paris 
12. Aurignacian, skeleton of female, type of Cro-Magnon, now in 
the Museum at Monaco 
11. Aurignacian, hearths 
10. Aurignacian, hearths 
9g. Aurignacian, hearths 
8. Aurignacian, hearths 
7. Aurignacian, hearths 
6. Aurignacian, Cro-Magnon male skeleton (see Figs. 245 and 246), 
now in museum at Monaco 
s. Aurignacian, two negroid skeletons (see Figs. 247 and 248), now 
in museum at Monaco 


SeeeeioRAPHY OF PALEOLITHIC SITES . 397 


4. Aurignacian, hearths 
3. Aurignacian, hearths 
2. Remains of Rhinoceros merckii, cave lion 
1. Mousterian, hearths; Rhinoceros merckii 


All layers are of Quaternary Age; Nos. 1 and 2 contained Rhinoceros 
merckit but not Elephas antiquus or Hippopotamus, hence are not so old as 
the lowest layers at the Grotte du Prince. Rhinoceros merckii persisted 
longer in Europe than FE. antiquus and Hippopotamus. Reindeer were 
found at No. 5 and between Nos. 12 and 13. Implements of quartzite 
and calcareous stone predominate in the lowest levels, flint in the upper 
levels. Implements were manufactured elsewhere and brought to the 
Grimaldi caves. The fossil animal remains and the industrial remains are 
preserved in the Musée Anthropologique, Monaco. 

II. Lorenzi rock shelter. 

III. Florestan cave, explored by Prince Florestan about 1845 

IV. Grotte du Cavillon, or Barma dou Cavillou (patois for Grotte de la 
Cheville). The industrial remains include Mousterian and Aurignacian 
types. One sepulture (see Fig. 249), transferred to Museum d’Histoire 
Naturelle, Paris. 

V. Grotte de la Barma Grande (or Abbo, from its owner). 

Explored by M. Julien and M. Abbo. 

The deposits were some 10 m. (32.8 ft.) thick. Near the top Julien 
found a human skeleton, probably of Magdalenian age, which is now in the 
museum at Mentone. At a level above midway, Abbo found a skeleton 
of a large Cro-Magnon male which has been left 7” situ; at a level below 
midway, a triple burial: a large Cro-Magnon male and two youths, one of 
which is probably a female. The large male was removed to a museum 
built near the entrance to the cave, the two youths were left in situ. A 
fourth skeleton, partially burned, which is now in the museum, is said 
to have been found near the second burial from the top. 

The industrial remains include Mousterian and Aurignacian types, the 
latter largely of flint, the former of quartzite and calcareous stone. Bone 
compressors are included among the artifacts. The fauna includes Elephas 
antiquus and. Rhinoceros merckii (see Figs. 109 and 163). 

VI. Baousso da Torre. 

Cave adjoining Barma Grande but at a lower level. 

Explored by E. Riviére, later destroyed by quarrymen. 

There were three sepultures, the skeletons from which were removed to 
the Museum d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris. 

VII. Grotte du Prince, so called in honor of its owner, Prince Albert I 
of Monaco. 


Culture Sequence: 


9. Post-Pleistocene (?) 
8. Hearths; cold fauna 


398 HUMAN ORIGINS 


Hearths; cold fauna, reindeer 
. Mousterian 

. Mousterian 

. Mousterian 

. Ancient Mousterian 

. Ancient Mousterian 

. Ancient Mousterian 


HNwWwtUN AN 


The section from Nos. 1 to 9 has a,thickness of 15 m. (49.2 ft.). Below 
this is a marine deposit 2 m. (6.6 ft.) thick. Between Nos. 1 and 2, 2 and 3, 
3 and 4, are hearths with warm fauna: Rhinoceros mercku, Elephas antiquus, 
Hippopotamus (except between Nos. 3 and 4). There are relatively few 
scrapers; fusiform or slug-shaped implements pointed at both ends pre- 
dominate. The collections are at the Musée Anthropologique, Monaco. 

VIII. Unimportant rock shelter. 

IX. Gerbai cave, unimportant. 


Goti (Apuan Alps) 


Cave in the vicinity of Farnocchia. 
Explored by Regnolli. 


References: Moccui, CIA, i, 272-273 (Geneva, 1912). 


Culture Sequence (Mocchi): 


2. Neolithic and later 
1. Lower or Middle Aurignacian 


Olmo (Tuscany) 


Station in the open near Arezzo, in the Arno valley above Florence. 
Explored by Igino Cocchi in 1863; Forsyth-Major, et al. 


References: Coccui, Mem. dell. Soc. Ital. de Sci. Nat., ii (Milan, 1867); 
G. DE Morrit_eEt, BSA, 2d ser., ili, 40-42 (1868); Hamy, tbid., 112-118; 
Moccui, CIA, i, 263 (Geneva, 1912). 


Stratigraphy (Mocchi) (subject to revision): 


2. Aurignacian, typical implement; Megaceros; gravels 

1. Mousterian, flint implement; Elephas antiquus, Equus caballus, 
Cervus elaphus, Bos primigenius, Bison’ priscus, Rhinoceros 
merckii; blue clay in which celebrated Olmo human skull is said 
to have been found 


Onda, all’ (Lucca Alpi) 


Cave near Casoli. 
Explored by Mocchi and Schiff-Georgini. 


Pinal IGRAPHY. OF PALEOLITHIC SITES . 399 


References: Moccui and Scuirr-Grorcini, AAE, xlv, 89-119 (1915); 
Moccui, AABF, 1, 121-156 (1920). 


_ Culture Sequence (adapted from Mocchi): 


5. Eneolithic, recent faunal remains 

. Formation of stalagmite 

. Aurignacian, clay deposit with hearths; Ursus spelaeus 

. Formation of stalagmite 

. Mousterian (?), clay deposit with hearths; Ursus spelaeus, Felis 
pardus 


He bo Ww 


Romanelli (Otranto) 


Cave near Castro, about 50 km. (31.25 mi.) south of Lecce. 
Explored by P. E. Stasi and Baron G. A. Blanc. 


References: REGALIA and Stasi, AAE, xxxv, No. 2, second note (1905), 
G. A. BLanc, zbid., 1, 65-103 (1920). 


Culture Sequence: 


6. Upper Aurignacian, stalagmite; fauna including ass 

5. Lower Aurignacian, red clay with fine eolian sand; Elephas 
antiquus, horse predominant . 

4. Stalagmite, temperate to cold fauna 

3. Mousterian, stony layer composed largely of débris from ceiling; 
warm fauna 

2. Atypic industry, hearths with warm fauna 

1. Beach gravels 


The cave of Romanelli is comparable with the Grimaldi caves. It is 
only 7.50 m. (24.6 ft.) above the sea; the station at Capri, also at a former 
beach level, is 130 m. (426.8 ft.) above the sea, but with the same warm 
fauna as that at the base of the deposits at Romanelli. 


San Egidio (Umbria) 


Station in alluvial deposits in the valley of the Chiascio. 
Explored by G. Bellucci. 


References: Bettucci, AAE, viii, 41-49 (1878); ibid., ix (1879); A. DE 
MormTILLEt, REA, i, 321-341 (1891). 


Stratigraphy: 
3. Mousterian 


2. Acheulian 
1. Chellean 


400 


HUMAN ORIGINS 


JUGOSLAVIA 


Krapina (Croatia) 


Rock shelter on the banks of the Krapinica, known since 1895. 
Explored by Karl Gorganovic-Kramberger from 1899-1905. 


References: KRAMBERGER, MAGW, xxxi, 164-197 (1901); KRAMBERGER, 
Der diluv. Mensch von Krapina in Kroatien, xi+277 pp., 14 pls. (Wies- 
baden, 1906); KRAMBERGER, Umschau, xii (Aug. 8, 1908). 


Culture Sequence (all eight levels are probably Mousterian): 


HEnHowWwWAN AN CWO 


. Ursus spelaeus 
. Hearths 
. Hearths 
. Hearths 


Hearths 


. Human bones 


Human bones 


. Ossiferous zone, beaver 
. Pebbly layer 


MALTESE ISLANDS 


Ghar Dalam (Malta) 


Cavern (Ghar) in the southeastern section of the island. 
Explored by T. Ashby, Giuseppe Despott, and Zammit, under the 
auspices of the British Association in 1914 and 1917. 


References: ArtHuR KeitTH, Nature (July 25, 1918); Despott, JAT, liii, 
18-35, 4 pls. (1923). 


Culture Sequence: 


HNwWPU AN 


Bronze Age and later 


. Neolithic 

. Neolithic 

. Mousterian, chipped implements; human molar, remains of stag 
. Mousterian, human milk molar, remains of Elephas 

. Fauna of Elephas, Hippopotamus 

. Fauna of Elephas, Hippopotamus 


Sires (GRAPHY OF PALEOLITHIC SITES. 401 


MCNACO 


Observatoire, L’ (Principality of Monaco) 


Cave at considerable elevation in the city of Monaco. 
Explored by the Abbé L. de Villenueve. 


Culture Sequence: 
4. Neolithic 
3. Upper Paleolithic 
2. Mousterian 
1. Chellean 


The cave is rich in fossil fauna including a large and rare species of 
Canis. The collections are in the Musée Anthropologique at Monaco. 


PHCENICIA 


Adlun 


Cave near a village of the same name about half way between Tyre and 
Sidon. Elevation, 150 m. (492.5 ft.). 
Explored by G. Zumoffen. 


References: ZUMOFFEN, Anthr., viii, 272-283, 426-438 (1897); ZUMOFFEN, 
“La Phénicie avant les Phéniciens. L’dge dela Pierre’”’ (Beyrouth, 1900). 


Culture Sequence: 


3. Mousterian 
2. Acheulian 
1. Chellean 


Antelias 


Spacious cave in the Antelias valley some 8 or 10 km. northeast of 
Beyrouth. 
Explored by G. Zumoffen. 


References: ZUMOFFEN, Anthr., viii, 272-283, 426-438 (1897); ZUMOFFEN, 
“La Phénicie avant les Phéniciens. L’dge dela Pierre’’ (Beyrouth, 1900). 


Culture Sequence: 
3. Magdalenian 
2. Aurignacian 
1. Mousterian 


402 HUMAN ORIGINS 


POLAND 


Maszycka (Galicia) 


Cavern on the left bank of the Pradnik in Ojcow ravine, village of 
Maszyce, near Krakau. 
Explored by G. Ossowski. 


References: HorrNES, DME, 175-178. 


Culture Sequence: 


2. Neolithic, four human skeletons 
1. Magdalenian 


Nad-Galoska (Piotrokow) 


Station in the district of Bedzin. 
Explored by G. Ossowski. 


Culture Sequence (Schmidt): 


2. Aurignacian 
1. Middle Mousterian 


The collection is in the museum at Krakau. 


Wierzchow (Galicia) 


Lower cavern known as the Cavern of the Mammoth, in the Rudava 
valley near Krakau. 
Explored by Count J. Zavisza from 1873-1879; also by G. Ossowski. 


References: ZAviszA, MSA, 2d ser., i, 439-447 (1873); Zavisza, CIA, 
i, 69-75 (Stockholm, 1874); Zavisza, L’homme, 367 (1884); ZAVISZA, 
ibid., ii, 156 (1886). 


Culture Sequence: 
5. Neolithic 
. Magdalenian (?) 
. Solutrean, laurel-leaf points 
. Aurignacian 
. Mousterian 


Mee Nn Ode 


Imitation teeth of ivory are said to have been found in the lower cavern 
at Wierzchow. The collections are in the museum at Krakau. 


Spee tiGRAPHY OF PALEOLITHIC SITES . 403 


PORTUGAL 


Furninha (Estremadura) 


Cave in a cliff at a height of 15 m. (49.2 ft.) above sea level on the 
peninsula of Peniche, 60 km. (35 mi.) northwest of Lisbon. 
Explored by Delgado. 


References: DELGADO, CIJA., oth session, 207-278, 16 pls. (Lisbon, 1880). 


Culture Sequence: 


2. Neolithic, burials, pottery, stone implements, etc. 
1. Paleolithic (probably Acheulian); seven fossil-bearing layers 
alternating with layers of sand 


RUSSIA 


Bologoie (Novgorod) 


Loess station on a lake of the same name about midway between Petro- 
grad and Moscow. 
Explored by Prince Paul A. Poutiatine. 


References: Rutot, CPF, vi, 227-233 (Tours, 1910) 


Stratigraphy (Rutot): 
5. Campignian and Age of Metals 
4. Campignian and Age of Metals 
3. Magdalenian 
2. Lower Paleolithic 
1. Lower Paleolithic 


Baratschwili (Caucasus) 
Cave near Kutais. 
Explored by R. R. Schmidt. 


References: not yet published.’ 
Culture Sequence (Schmidt): 


Several horizons of Upper Aurignacian 


Uwarof (Caucasus) 
Cave near Kutais. 
Explored by R. R. Schmidt. 


References: not yet published.’ 


7 Listed here by permission of Professor Schmidt. 


404 HUMAN ORIGINS 


Culture Sequence (Schmidt): 


4. Middle Ages 

. Upper Aurignacian 
. Upper Aurignacian 
. Upper Aurignacian 


HW 


Virchow (Caucasus) 
Cave near Kutais. 
Explored by R. R. Schmidt. 


References: not yet published.’ 


Culture Sequence (Schmidt): 
4. Upper Aurignacian 
3. Upper Aurignacian 
2. Upper Aurignacian 
1. Upper Aurignacian 


Schmidt located a Paleolithic refuse heap in one of these horizons. 


SIBERIA 


Afontova Mountain (Yenisei Government) 


Loess station near Krasnoyarsk. 
Explored by I. T. Savenkov. 


References: SAVENKOV, Proc. East Siberian Sec. Russian Geogr. Soc., 
Xvii, 3-4 (1886); SAVENKOv, CIA, i (Moscow, 1892); BARON DE BAYE, 
Anthr., x, 172 (1899); G. VON MERHART (trans. by G. G. MacCurdy), 
Amer. Anthr., N.S., xxv, I-55 (1923). 


Stratigraphy (G. von Merhart): 
4. Upper Paleolithic,? loess with various thin bands indicating 
culture remains 
3. Upper Paleolithic, dark culture stains—o.15 m. 
2. Fine sterile sand in lenticular masses—o.27-o m. 
1. Upper Paleolithic, sandy loess with scattering culture remains— 
0.55-0.40 m. 


Bateni (Yenisei Government) 


Loess station on the left bank of the Yenisei, 265 km. (165.6 mi.) above 
Krasnoyarsk. 


Explored by I. T. Savenkov, A. P. Jermolaev, G. von Merhart. 
References: VON MERHART, Amer. Anthr., N.S., xxv, 1-55 (1923). 


8 Listed here by permission of Professor Schmidt. 
® The horizons marked Upper Paleolithic in these Siberian stations are the equiva- 
lent of the Magdalenian, but with Siberian facies (persistence of Mousterian types). 


SLRATIGRAPHY OF PALEOLITHIC SITES 405 


Stratigraphy (G. von Merhart): 


4. Iron Age, dark layer in blown sand—o.4o m. 

3. Upper Paleolithic, at base of reddish-brown sandy loam—o.o03 m. 
2. Sand 

1. Upper Paleolithic, resting on gravel and rubble 


Busunova (Yenisei Government) 


Loess station north of Kosakenstaniza on the right bank of the Yenisei 
river, 350 km. (218.7 mi.) southwest of Krasnoyarsk. 
Explored by G. von Merhart and G. P. Sosnovski in 1920. 


References: vON MERHART, Amer. Anthr., N.S., xxv, I-55 (1923). 


Stratigraphy (G. von Merhart): 


. Dune sand—t.oo m. 

. Iron Age, dune sand—1.oo m. 

. structureless, fine gray sand—2.00 m. 

. Upper Paleolithic, yellow loess (no shells found)—3.00 m. 

. Upper Paleolithic, sandy loess with two relic-bearing horizons— 
T.00 m. 

. Stratified sands—4.00 m. 

1. Rubble 


WwW Bo HAs 


tO 


Lepjoschkina (Yenisei Government) 


Loess station on the right bank of the Yenisei river some 265 km. 
(165.6 mi.) above Krasnoyarsk. 
Explored by G. von Merhart and G. P. Sosnovski in 1920. 


References: VON MERHART, Amer. Anthr., N.S., xxv, I-55 (1923). 


Stratigraphy (G. von Merhart): 


3. Iron Age camp site in fine sands 
2. Upper Paleolithic, hearth and workshop at base of fine sands 
1. Dark, stony deposit 


Peresselentscheskij Point (Yenisei Government) 


Loess station across the Yenisei river (right bank) from Krasnoyarsk. 
Explored by Baron de Baye, S. M. Sergejev, and A. N. Sobolev. 


References: voN MeEruHART, Amer. Anthr., N.S., xxv, 1-55 (1923). 


Stratigraphy (G. von Merhart): 
5. Dune sand 
4. Iron Age—ca. 0.60 m. 
3. Transition to fine sand— 4.00 m. 


406 HUMAN ORIGINS 


2. Upper paleolithic; in transition from sandy loess to yellow loess, 
Succinea—1.0o0 m. 
1. Rubble—3.00-4.00 m 


Woennyi (Yenisei Government) 


Loess station on the left bank of the Yenisei River northeast of Kras- 
noyarsk. . 
Explored by A. P. Jermolaev, A. I. Tugaranov, and G. von Merhart. 


References: VON MERHART, Amer. Anthr., N.S., xxv, 1-55 (1923). 


Stratigraphy (G. von Merhart): 

6. Late Iron Age camp site—ca. 0.50 m. 
. Loess | 
. Upper Paleolithic, at a depth of 4.00 m. in loess 
. sandy loess 
. Gravel and rubble 
. Paleozoic marl 


eH HW BN 


SPAIN 


Abrich Romani (Barcelona) 


Rock shelter at Capellades. 
Explored by L. M. Vidal. 


References: VIDAL, Anuari del’ Institut d’ Estudis Catalans, Any, iv, 272-281 
(1911-12). 


Culture Sequence (Obermaier): 
3. Neolithic 
2. Magdalenian 
1. Mousterian 
The deposits are 12 m. (39.4 ft.) thick. Near by is the Mousterian 
station of Agut, also explored by Vidal. 


Altamira (Santander) 


Grand cavern near Santillana del Mar. 
Explored by Marcelino de Sautuola as early as 1875-79. 


References: SAUTUOLA, Breves apuntes sobre algunos objetos prehistoricos 
de la provincia de Santander (Libreria Murillo, Madrid, 1880); CARTAIL- 
HAC, Anthr., xiii, 348-354 (1902); CA, vili+287 pp., 37 pls. (Monaco, 
1906); CRC, 194-204, pls. xci-c. 


STRATIGRAPHY OF PALEOLITHIC SITES 407 


Culture Sequence (Obermaier): 


2. Magdalenian (see Fig. 112). 
1. Upper Solutrean 
The first Paleolithic mural paintings were discovered here by Sautuola 
in 1879 (see Figs. 7, 110 and 113). 


Balzola (Vizcaya) 
Cave near Dima-Yurre. 
Explored by A. de Galves-Cafiero. 


References: OBERMAIER, HF, 169, 319. 


Culture Sequence (Obermaier): 


2. Azilian 
1. Magdalenian 


Buxu, El (Asturias) 1° 


Cave in the district of Ganges de Onis. 
Explored by C. Cardin, Francisco Benitez, H. Obermaier, and Count 
de la Vega del Sella. 


References: OBERMAIER and COUNT DE LA VEGA DEL SELLA, CIPP, 
Mem. Num. 20, 42 pp. (Madrid, 1918). 


Culture Sequence (based on mural art): 
2. Middle Magdalenian 


1. Lower Magdalenian 
Cala, La (Malaga) 


Cave near the sea, between Malaga and Palo. 
Explored by Miguel Such and H. Breuil. 


References: BREUIL, Anthr., xxxi, 250-253 (1921). 


Culture Sequence: 


2. Neolithic, pottery 
1. Late Paleolithic, or transitional (Tardenoisian) 


Camargo, or Pefia del Mazo (Santander) 


Cave at Revilla-Camargo. 
Explored by Marcellino de Sautuola; J. Carballo and Lorenzo Sierra; 
H. Obermaier. 


References: OBERMAIER, MV. 


10 The name of an ancient province which included what is now Oviedo and a part 
of Santander. 


408 HUMAN ORIGINS 


Culture Sequence (Obermaier): 
3. Magdalenian, engravings 
2. Solutrean 
1. Aurignacian, human skull 


Castillo (Santander) 


Cavern in the east side of Castillo mountain at Puente-Viesgo (see Figs. 
a 04, 112; 116, s142eand 100). 
Explored by H. Alcalde del Rio; H. Obermaier and P. Wernert; 
H. Breuil. x 
References: CRC, 112-193, pls. lix-xc; OBERMAIER and BreuiL, CIA, 
361 (Geneva, 1912); OBERMAIER and BREuIL, Anthr., xxiii, 1-26 (1912); 
ibid, xxiv, 1-16 (1913); OBERMAIER, HF, 173-178. 


Culture Sequence: 


12. Eneolithic 

11. Azilian 

10. Upper Magdalenian 

Lower Magdalenian 

Lower Solutrean 

Upper Aurignacian 

Upper Aurignacian 

Upper Aurignacian 

Middle Aurignacian (or Lower) 
. Upper Mousterian 

. Upper Mousterian 

. Acheulian (or Lower Mousterian) 


HORE DT WO 


One of the thickest known series of superposed deposits; the thickness 
of the combined alternating sterile and relic-bearing deposits at the mouth 
of the cavern is 16 to 18 meters (52.5-59.1 ft.). 


Cobalejos, or Puente-Arce (Santander) 


Cave at Puente-Arce, valley of Piélagos. 
Explored by E. de'la Pedraja; H. Obermaier and L. de Rozas. 


References: OBERMAIER, HF, 179, 277 


Culture Sequence (Obermaier): 
3. Magdalenian 
2. Solutrean 
1. Mousterian 


SPRATIGRAPHY OF PALEOLITHIC SITES 409 


Conde, El (Asturias) 


Cave near Tufion, district of Santo Adriano. 
Explored by Count de la Vega del Sella, who discovered it in 1915s. 


References: HERNANDEZ-PacHECcO, CIPP, Mem. Num. 24, 27 pp. (1919). 


Culture Sequence: 


2. Aurignacian 
1. Mousterian 


Cueto de la Mina (Asturias) 
Cave near Posada. 
Explored by Count de la Vega del Sella in 1914-15. 


References: COUNT DE LA VEGA DEL SELLA, CIPP, Mem. Num. 13, 94 pp. 
(1916). 
Culture Sequence (Count de la Vega del Sella and H. Obermaier): 


8. Proto-Neolithic (Asturian and Azilian) 

7. Upper Magdalenian 

6. Upper Magdalenian 

5. Lower Magdalenian 

4. Upper Solutrean, laurel-leaf points, for the most part concave at 
the base 

. Lower Solutrean 

. Upper Aurignacian 

1. Upper Aurignacian 


OS & 


Fuente del Frances, La (Santander) 


Cave near Hoznayo-Entrambasaguas. 
Discovered in 1880 by E. de la Pedraja. 


References: OBERMAIER, HF, 171. 


Culture Sequence (Obermaier): 


3. Magdalenian 
2. Solutrean 
1. Mousterian 


Hornos de la Pefia (Santander) 


Cave at San Felices de Buelna (see Fig. 174.) 
Explored by L. Sierra, H. Alcalde del Rio, H. Obermaier, H. Breuil, 


J. Bouyssonie. 


References: CRC, 85-111, pls. l-Iviii; Brevir and OBERMAIER, Anthr., 
Xxiii, 1-26 (1912); OBERMAIER, HF, 138, 179-180, 231, 235, 248. 


410 HUMAN ORIGINS 


Culture Sequence: 


4. Neolithic 

3. Magdalenian 

2. Lower Solutrean 
1. Mousterian 


Madrid (Madrid) 


Several diluvial stations near the city in the valley of the Manzanares, 
chiefly on the right bank. The best known is San Isidro in the village of 
the same name, across the river from Madrid (see Figs. 3 and 43). 

Explored by Casiano de Prado as early as 1851 and 1862-64; by L. 
Lartet, G. de Mortillet, Cartailhac, J. Vilanova, L. Siret, Gaudry, M. Anton 
y Ferrandiz (San Isidro), H. Obermaier, P. Wernert, J. P. de Barradas, E. 
Hernandez-Pacheco. 


References: CARTAILHAC, Les dges préhs. de l’Espagne et du Portugal, 24-28 
(Paris, 1886); DE BayE, BSA, 4th ser., iv, 274-286, 391-402 (1893); 
Gaupry, Anthr., v, 615-616 (1895); OBERMAIER, HF, 82-90, 192-194; 
WERNERT and DE BARRADAS, Junta Sup. de Excavaciones y Antiguedades, 
Num. Gral., 33 (Madrid, 1921). 


Stratigraphy: 


I. San Isidro 
4. Acheulian, sands with some clay, 7-8 m. (23-26.3 ft.). 
3. Lower Acheulian, sands and clays, 0.3-3.0 m., fossil fauna 
2. Chellean, cleavers somewhat waterworn; gravels, 3 m.; fossil 


fauna 
1. Middle Miocene, remains of Anchitherium and Mastodon 
angustidens 


II. Lopez Canamero 
1. Mousterian 


III. Portazgo tile works (Wernert and de Barradas) 


11. Vegetal earth—o.25 m. 

. Lower Magdalenian, red loam with gravels; Equus 
. Clay and sand 

Lower Aurignacian, white earth—3.50 m.; Equus 
Upper fine sands—10-20 cm. 

Greenish earthy clay—o.50—-1.0 cm. 

Mousterian, upper reddish sand and gravels—1o-75 m. 
Basal earth—2.0 m. 

Mousterian, lower sands and gravels; Equus 
Acheulian, lower sands and gravels; Equus 
Chellean, lower sands and gravels; Equus 


4 
Oo 


HnHwWP an avnwsyt CO 


SLURATIGRAPHY -OF PALEOLITHIC SITES 411 


IV. Arenero del Portazgo sand pit (Wernert and de Barradas) 
8. Vegetal earth—30 cm. 
7. Earth with sand and gravels—8o cm. 
6. Upper Mousterian, white earth 
5. Reddish sands—50 cm. 
4. Mousterian, greenish clay earth—o.50-1.20 m.; faunal remains 
3. Mousterian 
2. Acheulian, lower gravels; Equus, Lepus 
1. Chellean 


V. Las Carolinas tileworks 
1. Early Aurignacian 


VI. Pozos de Feito 


1. Mousterian 


VII. Casa del Moreno sand, gravel, and clay pit 


2. Mousterian 
1. Mousterian 


Morin (Santander) 


Cave some 15 km. (9.4 mi.) from the city of Santander. 
Explored by Count Vega del Sella. 


Reference: VEGA DEL SELLA, CIPP, Mem. No. 29, 166 pp., 85 text figs., 
2 pls. (1921). 


Culture Sequence: 


. Azilian (with harpoons) 

. Upper Magdalenian (with harpoons) 
. Upper Solutrean 

. Aurignacian 

. Aurignacian 

. Aurignacian 

. Mousterian 


eFenowWthun An 


Paloma, La (Asturias) 


Cave near Soto de las Regueras. 
Explored by E. Hernandez-Pacheco in 1914-15; Count de la Vega del 
Sella, Juan Cabré, P. Wernert. 


References: OBERMAIER, HF, 123, 187-188, 276, 320; HERNANDEZ-PACHECO, 
RA, xxxii, 334-341 (1922); HERNANDEz-PacHEco, CIPP, Mem. No. 


gr, 38 pp. (1923). 


412 HUMAN ORIGINS 


Culture Sequence (Obermaier): 
7. Age of Metals 
6. Neolithic 
. Azilian 
. Sterile layer 
Upper Magdalenian 
. Middle Magdalenian, batons, needles 
. Lower Magdalenian 


HFHW Bw 


Pefia de Candamo, La (Asturias) 


Cavern at San Roman de Candamo, near Nalon. 
Explored by E. Hernandez-Pacheco. 


References: HERNANDEZ-PAcHECO, CIPP, Mem. Num. 24, 281 pp. (19109). 


Culture Sequence (Hernandez-Pacheco) (based on mural art): 


4. Upper Magdalenian 
3. Middle Magdalenian 
2. Lower Magdalenian 
1. Aurignacian 


Near the cavern of Pefia de Candamo is a small cave called Covacha de 
la Pena, in which Hernandez-Pacheco found a Solutrean deposit. 


Pefia de Carranceja (Santander) 


Cave near Reocin. 
Discovered and explored by H. Alcalde del Rio. 


References: OBERMAIER, PZ, i, 185 (1909). 


Culture Sequence (Obermaier): 


2. Magdalenian 
1. Solutrean 


Pendo, El or San Pantaleon (Santander) 


Cave at Escobedo-Camargo. 
Explored by M. de Sautuola, Alcalde del Rio, Breuil, Sierra, and 
O. Cendrero. 


References: CRC, 36-39, pls. xxii and xxvili. 


Culture Sequence: 
3. Azilian 
2. Magdalenian 
1. Solutrean 


Pie tanh APHY OF PALEOLITHIC SITES . .413 


Quintanal (Oviedo) 


Cave near Balmori (Llanes). 
Explored by Alcalde del Rio, Count de la Vega del Sella in rors. 


References: HERNANDEZ-PacHEco, CIPP, Mem. Num, 24, 25 (10109). 


Culture Sequence (Hernandez-Pacheco): 
5. Asturian 

. Azilian 

Magdalenian 

. Lower Magdalenian 

. Upper Solutrean 


Hb wW 


Rascafio (Santander) 


Cave near Mirones, 
Explored by L. Sierra, Hernandez-Pacheco, J. Carballo. 


References: OBERMAIER, HF, 170-172, 316, 310. 


Culture Sequence (Obermaier): 


2. Azilian, harpoons 
1. Magdalenian, harpoons 


Riera, La (Asturias) 


Cave 50 m. (164.2 ft.) from cave of Cueto de la Mina, district of Llanes. 
Explored by Count de la Vega del Sella, who discovered it. 


References: HERNANDEZ-PaAcHEco, CIPP, Mem. Num. 24, 25 (19109). 


Culture Sequence (Hernandez-Pacheco): 
5. Asturian 
. Azilian, typical harpoons 
. Magdalenian, harpoons with two rows of barbs 
. Magdalenian 
. Solutrean 


eH HW 


Salitre (Santander) 
Cavern near Ajanedo-Miera. 
Explored by L. Sierra. 
References: OBERMAIER, HF, 170, 231. 


Culture Sequence (Obermaier): 
3. Magdalenian 
2. Solutrean 
1. Aurignacian 


414 HUMAN ORIGINS 


San Isidro (see Madrid) 


Sofoxo (Asturias) 


Cave on the right bank of the Nora river, district of Regueros. 
Explored by Count de la Vega del Sella, who discovered it. 


References: HERNANDEZ-PACHECO, CIPP, Mem. Num. 24 (1919). 


Culture Sequence (Hernandez-Pacheco): 


2. Azilian or Magdalo-Azilian 
1. Upper Magdalenian 


Valle (Santander) 


Cave near Rasines. 
Explored by L. Sierra in 1905; Obermaier, Breuil, J. Bouyssonie. 


References: BrREvuIL and OBERMAIER, Anthr., xxili, 1-26 (1912); 7bid., 
XXIV, 1-100(5014)) 


Culture Sequence: 


3. Tardenoisian 
2. Azilian 
1. Upper Magdalenian, engravings on bone and staghorn 


One of the very few stations in Spain where the reindeer has been found. 


Villaneuva (Santander) 


Cave in the Ayuntamiento of Villaescusa. 
Explored by O. Cendrero and Jesus Carballo. 


References: OBERMAIER, HF, 178, 3109. 


Culture Sequence (Obermaier): 


2. Azilian 
1. Magdalenian 


SWITZERLAND 


Birseck (Basle) 


Rock shelter at a chateau of same name, near Arlesheim. 
Explored by F. Sarasin. 


References: SARASIN, CIA, i, 566-570 (Geneva, 1913); SARASIN, VDSI’'C. 
liv, Abh. 2 (1918). 


Sere (GRAPHY OF PALEOLITHIC SITES 415 


Culture Sequence (Sarasin): 


3. Neolithic, crude pottery; stone and bone implements 
2. Azilian, painted pebbles; recent fauna 
1. Magdalenian, reindeer fauna 


In the Azilian horizon, Sarasin found 122 painted pebbles, all of which 
had been broken. They were of various shapes: round, flat, and in the 
shape of a sausage. Apparently they had been carried from a small stream 
near-by and colored red, in most cases on one side only. 


Cotencher (Neuchatel) 


Cave in the valley of the Areuse at an altitude of 650 m. (2,134.2 ft.). 
Discovered and partially explored (especially for bones of the cave bear) 
in 1867; since 1915 by A. Dubois, H. A. Stehlin, Paul Vouga, ef al. 


References: STEHLIN and Dusots, Ecloge geologice Helvetia, xiv, 4 pp.(1916). 


Culture Sequence (Stehlin and Dubois): 


4. Stalagmitic crust 

3, Clay—o.60-1.00 m. 

2. Mousterian, Ursus spelaeus, wolf, Vulpes spec., Lepus spec., Mus 
spec., reindeer, horse, ibex, lynx, Felis spelaea, F. pardus, F. catus 
——=150-2,00 .™. 

1. Brownish earth, marmot, Cricetus cricetus, Eliomys spec., Foeto- 
rius erminea, Ursus spelaeus, wolf, Vulpes spec., Lepus spec., Mus 
spec., reindeer 


More than g5 per cent of the fossil animal remains beiong to the cave 
bear. 


Drachenloch (St. Gallen) 


Cavern at an elevation of 2,445 m. (8,027.7 ft.) near the top of. Drachen- 
berg, southerly from Ragatz (see Figs. 18, 19 and 66). 
Explored by Theophil Nigg and Emil Bachler from 1917-22. 


References: BACHLER, Jahrb. St. Gallischen naturw. Ges., lvii, Part I, 144 pp. 
(1921). 


Culture Sequence (adapted from Bachler): 


6. Surface deposit, remains of rodents, birds, etc. 

5. Whitish gray deposit, perfectly preserved fossil remains of ibex, 
chamois, marmot, Ursus arctos (cave bear absent)—o.15-0.25 m. 

4. Dark-red earth, wolf, fox, marmot, ibex, chamois, Ursus arctos, 
and cave bear, all remarkably well preserved—o.35-0.55 m. 

3. Lower Mousterian (warm), reddish-brown deposit; hearth, fire 
pit, implements made of fibulae of cave bear and limestone; piles 


416 HUMAN ORIGINS 


of cave-bear skulls and long bones forming altar offerings; 
wolf, ibex, chamois, marmot, cave bear—o.60-0.80 m. 
2. Lower Mousterian (warm), reddish-brown deposit; implements 
of bone and limestone; cave bear, ibex, chamois—o.25—-0.40 m. 
1. Whitish-gray cave earth—1.80—2.00 m. 


Kesslerloch (Schaffhausen) 


Cave near Thayngen (or Thaingen). 
Explored by Merck, 1873-74; Nitesch, 1893, 1899; Heierli, 1903. 


References: Merckx, MAGZ, xix, Heft I (1875); RuTIMEYER, AA, viii, 
123-131 (1875); LINDENSCHMIT, ibid., ix, 173-179 (1876); NUESCH, 
Anseiger f. Schweiz. Altertumskundeée, N.F., ii, 4-10 (1900); ibid., vi, 185 
(1904-05); Nuescu,” StupER, and ScHOETENSACK, NDSNG, xxxix, 
Heft II (1904); Nurscu, MAGW, xxx, 76-79 (1900); OBERMAIER, 
Anthr., xvii, 77 (1906); HrIErLI, VNDSNG, xliii, 214 pp., 32 pls. (1907). 


Culture Sequence: 


I. (Heierli) 

. Magdalenian, mammoth fauna, including Vulpes lagopus 
. Magdalenian, mammoth fauna 

. Magdalenian, mammoth fauna 

. Pre-Magdalenian, mammoth fauna 


II. (Obermaier) 


. Upper Magdalenian 
. Middle Magdalenian 
. Lower Magdalenian 
. Upper Solutrean 


KH NW B 


HNnNW f 


Rutot believes all four horizons at Kesslerloch represent simply the 
evolution of Lower Magdalenian culture. 

The principal collection from Kesslerloch is in the Rosgarten Museum at 
Constance (see Fig. 128). 


Muhleloch (Olten-Soloturn) 


Rock shelter near the city of Olten. 
Explored by Schweizer. 


Culture Sequence (Schweizer): 
3. Bronze Age 
2. Sterile layer—1.5 m. 
1. Magdalenian 


SP eeeelGRAPHY OF PALEQLITHIC SITES 417 


Schweizersbild (Schaffhausen) 


Rock shelter 3 km. north of city of Schaffhausen (see Fig. 13). 
Explored by J. Nitesch and Hausler, 1891-93. 


References: Bout, Nouvelles archs. des missions sci. et lit., iii, 87-100 
(1892); BouLe, Anthr., iii, 633-634 (1892); NuEscu, DASGN, xxxv 
(1896); G. pe Mortittet, REA, viii, 142-149 (1898); NUESCH, 
NDSNG (1902); OBERMAIER, Anthr., xvii, 78-80 (1906). 


Culture Sequence (Ntesch, Rutot): 


. Iron Age 

. Bronze Age 

. Neolithic, two dozen human sepultures; forest fauna 

. Breccia, steppe rodents and forest fauna 

Middle Magdalenian, abundance of flint chips, harpoons, bone 
needles, batons, perforated shells, engraved and sculptured rein- 
deer horn; steppe fauna 

2. Magdalenian, slightly developed 

Ee breccia, tundra fauna 


wFPun an 


The fauna is that of the reindeer; both mammoth and Rhinoceros 
lichorhinus are lacking. 

The principal collection from Schweizersbild is in the museum at 
Zurich. 


Wildkirchli (Appenzell) 


Cave near the top of the Ebenalp (see Fig. 17) in the Santis range at 
an elevation of 1,477-1,500 m. (4,849.5—-4,925 ft.). 
Explored by Emil Bachler in 1903-04. 


References: Bacuier, Verh. schweizer. naturforsch. Ges. 74 pp., 4 pls. 
(St. Gallen, 1906). 


Culture Sequence (adapted from Bachler): 
12. Surface deposit—o.15 m. 
11. Whitish to yellow lime-dust sinter—o.15-0.30 m. 
10. Lower Mousterian (warm), cave bear; fine light-brown earth— 
0740-0.00 in. 
g. Stony deposit with seams of light-brown earth—o.60-1.45 m. 
8. Lower Mousterian, cave bear abundant; splintered bones; 
dark-brown earth—1,.45-1.70 m. 
. Stony deposit (large blocks) —1.70-2.40 m. 
6. Stony layer mixed with dark earth—2.40-2.95 m. 
s. Lower Mousterian, abundance of disintegrated fossil animal 
bones; dark to black earth—2.95-3.85 m. 


~I 


418 HUMAN ORIGINS 


4. Stony deposit mixed with brown to black earth—3.85-—4.40 m. 

3. Lower Mousterian, dark earth; abundance of fossil animal 
remains—4.40-4.85 m. 

2. Lower Mousterian (interglacial), large weathered blocks of stone 
mixed with dark earth and bones—4.85-5.45 m. 

1. Floor of native limestone 


99.5 per cent of the fossil bones belong to the cave bear. Other species 
represented include cave lion, cave panther, Alpine wolf, wolf, ibex, chamois, 
red deer, marmot, marten, hermit crow. Artifacts occur at various levels 
from 0.50-0.70 m. down to horizon No. 1; a few crude bone implements 
were also found. 


APPENDIX II 
REPERTORY OF PALEOLITHIC ART 


In the whole domain of prehistoric archeology, no field has attracted 
more attention than that of Quaternary art; and rightly so since its’ 
appearance marks a distinct epech in mental evolution. The publica- 
tions, some in pamphlet form, others in quarto volumes, dealing chiefly 
with Quaternary art are many. The principal contributions are to be 
found in the works of Lartet and Christy, Girod and Massenat, Piette, 
Cartailhac, Breuil, Obermaier, Capitan, and Peyrony. Among the 
notable compilations, those of Piette, Breuil, Reinach, and Hoernes 
should receive first mention. Of prime importance in the special field 
of stationary art are the series of monographs published by the Jnstitut 
de Paléontologie Humaine and entitled Peintures et Gravures Murales 
des Cavernes Paléolithiques (Monaco, 1906), and the memoirs of the 
Comision de Investigaciones Paleontologicas y Prehistoricas (Madrid). 

The value attached to Paleolithic sites, especially those containing 
examples of parietal art, is indicated by the number of those placed 
permanently under the protection of the government or that of local 
authorities. The lists of stations? which follow are arranged alpha- 
betically under the various countries; they include references as well 
as data bearing on the nature of the art objects from each station. 


AUSTRIA 


Gudenus (Lower Austria) 
Cave west of Krems. 


Reference: OBERMAIER and BREvIL, MAGW, xxxviii, 277-294 (1908). 


Portable Art: Engraved needlecase of bird bone (Magdalenian). 


* Willendorf (Lower Austria) 
Loess station at Willendorf, near Spitz. 
Reference: SzomBaTHy, KB, xl, Nos. 9-12 (1909). 


1JIn certain Spanish stations, some of the art may date from post-Paleo- 
lithic times. 

*The most important art stations are marked by asterisks—two indicating first 
rank and one second rank. 


419 


420 HUMAN ORIGINS 


Portable Art: Nude human female figure (see Fig. 160), the so-called 
“Venus of Willendorf”’ (late Aurignacian). 


BELGIUM 


Coléoptére, Le (Luxembourg) 


Cave on the Ourthe river in the commune of Bomal, 40 km. (25 mi.) 
from Liége. 


Reference: J. Hamal-Nandrin, RA, —, 1924. 
Portable Art: Ivory figurine of an insect (coleopter) sculptured in ivory and 
provided with two holes for suspension (Magdalenian). 
y Goyet (Namur) 
Cavern at Mozet-les-Tombes, near Namur, 
Reference: Dupont, Mat. v, Pl. xvi (1869). 
Portable Art: Baton of reindeer horn with engraving of trout (Upper. 
Aurignacian); engraved bone (Middle Magdalenian). 
| Magrite (Namur) 
Cave near Pont-a-Lesse. 


References: Dupont, Les temps préhs. en Belgique: Vhomme pendant les 
dges dela pierre dans les environs de Dinant-sur-Meuse, 2d edit. ORIN 
Rutot, MARB, ‘‘Classe des beaux-arts,”’ i (1919). 


Portable Art: Engraving on fragment of reindeer horn; human figurine of 
ivory (Upper Aurignacian). 


CZECHOSLOVAKIA 


Briinn (Moravia) 
Loess station at Franz Josef Strasse, Brtinn. 
Reference: ALEx. Makowsky, MAGW, xxii, 73-84, Pls. 1-3 (1892). 
Portable Art: Ivory statuette of -Homo (Solutrean). 


Kostelik (Moravia) 
Cave about 12 km. (7,5 mi.) from Brtnn, near Mokrau. 


References: F. A. KRASSER, MAGW, xi, 98-99 (1881); Kriz, Anthr., x, 
257-280 (1899). 


REPERTORY OF PALEOLITHIC ART 421 


Portable Art: Jawbone of horse carved to represent fish; engraved signs 
on slate (Magdalenian); head of Bos primigenius engraved on bone. 


Kulna (Moravia) 
Cavern near Sloup. 
Reference: KRIz, Anthr., viti, 513-537 (1897). 
Portable Art: Ornamented bone objects (Magdalenian). 


Pekarna, or Diravica (Moravia) 


Cave near Mokrau. 
Engraying on slate. 


* Predmost (Moravia) 
Loess station near Prerau Junction. 


References: OBERMAIER, MV, 299-300; K. ABSOLON in KLAATSCH- 
HEILBORN, Der Werdegang der Menschheit und die Entstehung der Kultur 
(Briinn, 1918). 


Portable Art (Aurignacian): Six human female figures carved from 
metacarpals of the mammoth; stylistic engraving of female figure on 
ivory; incised herringbone patterns on ribs of the mammoth; incised 
wave ornament on large rib. 


ENGLAND 
Bacon Hole (Wales) 


Cavern near Swansea. 
Reference: Sortas, JAZ, xliii, 333-335 (1913). 


Mural Art: Frescoes of slight importance (10 red bands, fanlike). 


Robin Hood (Derbyshire) 
Cave at Creswell Crags. 
Reference: Boyp DAwkins, Early Man in Britain, 185 (1880). 


Portable Art: Engraving of horse on fragment of a rib (Aurignacian or 
Solutrean). 
Sherborne (Dorset) 


Surface find in quarry débris near the Bristol road. 
Reference: SmiTH-WoopWARD, QJ/GS, Ixx, 100-101 (1914). 


Portable Art: Figure of a horse engraved on bone. 


422 HUMAN ORIGINS 


FRANCE 
Aiguéze (sce Chabot) 


Ammonite (Charente) 


Cave near the cave of Le Placard, commune of Vilhonneur. 
Explored by A. P. Ragout. 


Portable Art: Engraving of Cervidae on bone. 


Arcy-sur-Cure (Yonne) 
Grotte du Trilobite. 


References: ABBE PARAT,-CIA, 63-78 (Paris, 1900); CFG, 147-148. 


Portable Art: Engraving on reindeer bone of stem with seven alternating 
leaves; engraving on slate of Rhinoceros tichorhinus and Bovidae (Upper 
Aurignacian). 


Arlay (Jura) 


Cave north of Lons-le-Saunier, near the river Seille. 
References: GirarpoTt, AFAS, i, 280 (Besancon, 1893). 


Portable Art: Engraving of a fish. 


* Arudy (Basses-Pyrénées) 
Grotte d’Espélungues, Grotte de Saint-Michel. 
Reference: PIETTE, APAR, viii, xxx, lxxxv, Ixxxvi, Ixxxvii-xciii. 


Portable Art: Representing the horse for the most part (bird, fish, wild 
goat, fox, Felis); figures in the round; engravings on bone and reindeer 
horn; ornamented batons and spear throwers; volutes and spirals 
(Magdalenian) (see Fig. 180). 


Aurensan (Hautes-Pyrénées) 
Cave near Bagnéres-de-Bigorre. 
Reference: E. and Cu. L. Frossarp, Mat., vi, 205-216 (1870). 


Portable Art: Engravings of wild goat and horse on bone; and Homo on 
slate. 


Pie LORY OF PACLEOLIEHIC ART 423 


Batie (Lot) 

Cave in the commune of Pinsac, across the Dordogne river from Lacave. 
Reference: A. Vir£, CPF, 215 (Périgueux, 1905). 
Portable Art: Engraving of horse on bone (Magdalenian). 

Bedeilhac (Ariége) 
Cavern near Tarascon. 

Reference: CARTAILHAC and BREvIL, Anthr., xxi, 149-150 (1910). 
Mural Art: Bison in brown; red signs and dotted bands; figures in black 

of the human hand. 


Bellet (see Planche-Torte) 


* Bernifal (Dordogne) 
Cave 5 km. (3.1 mi.) from Les Eyzies. 
Reference: CAPITAN, BREUIL, and PEyrony, REA, xiii, 202-209 (1903). 


Mural Art: Engravings of bison, horse, mammoth; tectiform signs (Mag: 
dalenian). 


Beyssac (Dordogne) 
Cave in the valley of the Beune, near the chateau of Beyssac. 
Reference: CAPITAN, BREUIL, and PEyrony, Anthr., xxvi, 517-518 (1915). 


Mural Art: Negative figure of a human hand. 


Bize (Aude) 


Two caves near Bize. 
Reference: CARTAILHAC, Mat., xii, 319 (1877). 


Portable Art: Engraved chevrons on bone; spatula with engraving of a 
mammal (fragmentary). 


Boeufs, Les (see Lespugue) 


Bout-du-Monde, La (Dordogne) 
Station near Les Eyzies. 


Reference: CRC, 225. 


424 HUMAN ORIGINS 


Portable Art: Engraving of a hind with its young on limestone; a bison on 
schist; reindeer and horse on bone; a perforated baton with engravings 
of a bison and horse on one side, and four bison heads on the other 
(Magdalenian). 


* Brassempouy (Landes) 
Grotte du Pape. . 


References: PIETTE, Anthr., vi, 129-151, Pls. I-VII (1895); APAR, 


Ixx—lxxx1. 

Portable Art: Engravings and figures in the round, including horse, fish, and 
seal; human figurines of ivory, including so-called ‘‘ Venus of Brassem- 
pouy’’ (Aurignacian) (see Figs. 125, 126, and 161). 

* Bruniquel (Tarn and Tarn-et-Garonne) 
Five rock shelters and caves on the banks of the Aveyron. 


References: CARTAILHAC, Anthr., xiv, 129-150, 295-315 (1903); APAR, 
li-v. 

Portable Art: Engravings and figures in the round, the most notable being 
a dart thrower of reindeer horn representing a mammoth (originally 
with eyes of inlay), and the pair of reindeer (now in the British Museum) 
(see Figs. 102 and 129); figures of Bos, fish, musk ox, chamois, stag, 
wild goat, and Capridae; ornamented batons (one with Felis) and dart 
throwers (horse); ten stones with engravings of the reindeer, bison, horse, 
wolf, etc., now in the British Museum (Magdalenian). 

Calévie, La (Dordogne) 
Cave some 500 m. (0.3 mi.) below Bernifal. 


Reference: CAPITAN, BREUIL, and PEyrony, REA, xiv, 379-381 (1904). 


Mural Art: Engravings of the horse (Aurignacian and Magdalenian types). 


Cambous, Les (Lot) 
Rock shelter in the valley of the Célé, commune of Rueyres. 
Reference: BERGOUGNOUX, Temps préhs. en Quercy, 33 (1887). 


Portable Art: Head of chamois and tail of fish (both fragmentary) engraved 
on reindeer horn. 


** Cap-Blanc (Dordogne) 
Rock shelter in the commune of Marquay, near Les Eyzies. 


Reference: LALANNE and BREvIL, Anthr., xxii, 385-402 (1911). 


REPERTORY OF PALEOLITHIC ART 425 


Mural Art: Six large (the largest, 2.15 m. in.length) figures of the horse, 
two groups of three each (see Fig. 140); bison in low relief that had 
fallen from the wall in prehistoric times (Magdalenian). 


Portable Art: Beetle carved from ivory; engraving on bone (Magdalenian) 


Chabot, also called Jean-Louis (Gard) 
Cave in the commune of Aiguéze. 
Reference: L. Curron, Bull. Soc. d’ Anthr. de Lyon, viii (1889). 


Mural Art: Engravings of the mammoth (mere tracings) (Magdalenian). 


Chaffaud (Vienne) 
Grotte du Puits in the commune of Savigné, near Chaffaud. 


References: E. LartEt, ASNZ, xv (1861); RENE FAUVELLE, L’homme, 
ii, 682-687 (1885); E. CARTAILHAC, Anthr., xiv, 180 (1903); CRC, 
Bie 224, p:'220. 


Portable Art: Troops of horses engraved on stone (see Fig. 132); figures of 
two hinds on the canon bone of a reindeer (see Fig. 6), the first example 
of Paleolithic art ever reported (Upper Magdalenian). Original in 
museum at Saint-Germain; fish carved in reindeer horn with contours 
cut away (original at Poitiers). 

Chaise, La (Charente) 
Cave in the commune of Vouthon. 


Reference: CRC, 225. 
Portable Art: Figures of hind engraved on bone (Magdalenian). 


Champs-Blancs, or Jean-Blanc (Dordogne) 
Two rock shelters in the commune of Bourniquel. 
Reference: Preyrony, AF AS, 522-528 (Nimes, 1912). 


Art: Bisons cut in relief on blocks of limestone (Lower Magdalenian). 


Chancelade (see Raymonden) 
* Colombiére, La (Ain) 
Rock shelter in the valley of the Ain, near Poncin. 


Reference: Maver and Pissort, Annales del’ Univ. de Lyon, N.S., “Sciences, 
médecine,”’ fasc. 39, 205 pp., 25 pls. (1915). 


426 HUMAN ORIGINS 


Portable Art: Engravings of Ursus, Felis, Bison, horse, Rhinoceros, rein- 
deer, musk ox, deer, wild sheep on pebbles and bone; human figures 
engraved on bone (Magdalenian or Aurignacian). 


Comarque (Dordogne) 


Cave in the valley of the Beune near the chateau of Comarque, commune 
of Sireuil. 


Reference: CAPITAN, BREUIL, and PEYRONY, Anthr., xxvi, 505-514 (1915). 
Mural Art: Engravings and low reliefs of horse and other animals, including 


a cave bear (Magdalenian). 


** Combarelles, Les (Dordogne) 


Cavern in the commune of Tayac, near Les Eyzies. 


References: RIVIERE, AFAS, ii, 710-714 (Caen, 1894); CAPITAN and 
BREUIL, REA, xii, 33-46 (1902). 


Portable Art: Engraved reindeer horn; engraving of Cervidae on scapula 
(Lower and Middle Magdalenian according to Peyrony). 


Mural Art: Horse; mammoth (see Fig. 117); reindeer; bison (see Fig. 118); 
Bovidae; antelope; wolf; fox; wild goat; Felis; cave bear; Capridae, 
etc. Peyrony believes some of the mural art is of Aurignacian and 
Solutrean age, but that most of it belongs to the Lower and Middle 
Magdalenian Epochs. 


Conduché (Lot) | 
Cave in the valley of the Célé. 


Reference: BERGoUGNOUX, Temps. préhs. en Quercy (1887). 


Portable Art: Engraving on bone (Magdalenian). 


Corgnac (Dordogne) 


Cave in the commune of Saint-Front. 
References: MASFRANC, Mat., xxii, 46-47 (1888); CFG, 177. 


Portable Art: Engraving of wounded reindeer on bone. 


Cro-Magnon (Dordogne) 
Rock shelter at Les Eyzies. 
Reference: RivirrRE, AFAS, 778 (Lyon, 1906). 


Portable Art: Engravings on bone (of doubtful origin); one representing a 
bison and the other a woman in full-length profile (Aurignacian?). 


REPERTORY OF PALEOLITHIC ART 427 


Crouzade, La (Aude) 


Cave at Gruissan, near Narbonne. 
Reference: CArTAILHAC, Mat., xii, 324 (1877). 


Portable Art: Animal heads engraved on bone (two figures of the horse); 
bone pendant with dotted ornament (Magdalenian). 


Croze a Gontran, La (Dordogne) 
Cave at Tayac. 


Reference: CapiTaN, BREvIL, and PEyrony, RA, 277-280 (1914). 


Mural Art: Engravings of mammoth, bison, horse, Bos, wild goat; groups 
of parallel lines (Aurignacian). 


Croze de Tayac, La, or Morsodou (Dordogne) 
Rock shelter in the commune of Tayac. 
References: RiviERE, AF AS, ii, 756-760 (1901); 779 (Lyon, 1906). 


Portable Art: Engraving of a fish on reindeer horn. 


Crozo de Gentillo (Lot) 
Cave in the commune of Lacave. 
Reference: Vir& and NIEDERLANDER, BSPF, xviii, 269-270 (1921). 


Portable Art: Baton of reindeer horn with incised signs suggestive of 
primitive writing; head of reindeer incised on plaque of limestone. 


* David (Lot) 
Cave near Cabrerets. 
Discovered in 1923 by David, a boy of 14. 
Explored by the Ahbé Lemozi and David in 1922 and 1923. 


References: J/lustration, Oct. 13, 1923; Illustrated London News, Oct. 20, 
1023. 


Mural Art: Some forty mural figures painted in red or black, or engraved. 
Mammoths, bisons, Equidae, fish (pike); some ten figures of the human 
hand in red ocher; fine engraving of a bear; engravings, paintings, 
bones, and fossilized excrement of Ursus; engraved figures of men 
(ithyphallic) followed by women with pendant breasts (Aurignacian and 
Magdalenian). 


428 HUMAN ORIGINS 


Dufaure and Duruthy (sce Sordes) 
Eglises, Les (Ariége)? 


Cave in the commune of. Ussat. 
Explored in part by Dr. Cuguillére. 


Mural Art: Figures of the wild goat, both male and female, in red, also a 
human figure under a tectiform sign; figure of a bison in black. 


Enléne (Ariége) 
Cave in the commune of Montesquieu-Avantes. 
Reference: Count BEGOUEN, Anthr., xxiii, 287-305 (1912). 


Portable Art: Head of horse carved from bone; dart thrower of reindeer 
horn ornamented with figure of Bovidae (or Cervidae) (Magdalenian). 


* Eyzies, Les (Dordogne) 
I. Cave in the commune of Tayac, near Les Eyzies. 


Reference: CaApiTaN, BrEvuIL, and Peyrony, REA, xvi, 429-440 (1906). 


Portable Art: Engravings on bone, reindeer horn, and schist of horse, 
bison, Bovidae, hind, reindeer, wild goat, Cervidae (Magdalenian). 


II. Abri du Chateau in the village of Les Eyzies. 


Portable Art: Engravings on a rib of stylistic human figures, each with a 
staff on the shoulder; human hands, bison (Magdalenian). 


Fées, Les (see Marcamps) 


Ferrassie, La (Dordogne) 
Rock shelter in the commune of Savignac-du-Bugue, near Le Bugue. 
Reference: CAPITAN and PEyrony, REA, xxxi, 92-112 (1921). 


Portable Art: Crude engravings and sketches in color; reindeer (?), wild 
goat (?), horse, rhinoceros, and vulva (Middle and Upper Aurignacian). 


Figuier, Le (Ardéche) 
Cave opposite Chabot, in the commune of Saint-Martin-d’Ardéche. 
Reference: R. VALLENTIN, Mém. Acad. de Vaucluse, ix, 344-348 (1890). 
Portable Art: Engraving of mammoth tusks on bone (Magdalenian). 


2 Near Les Eglises is the Grotte de l’Hermite where in 1921 Dr. Cuguillére found 
a drawing in yellow ocher in the style of the statue menhir human figures; it is prob- 
ably of Neolithic age. 


REPERTORY: OF PALEOLITHIC ART 429 


Fontarnaud (Gironde) 
Cave. 


References: Breuit, AJB, 114 (1905); Breuit, Anthr., xix, 190 (1908). 


Portable Art: Heads of Cervidae and birds engraved on same bone; engrav- 
ing of a fish on reindeer horn. 


** Font-de-Gaume (Dordogne) 


Cavern in the commune of Tayac, near Les Eyzies (see Figs. 153, 154 
are 17 1): 


Reference: CFG, vii+271 pp., 65 pls. 


Mural Art: Many polychrome frescoes and engravings representing the 
mammoth, bison, horse, woolly rhinoceros (Upper Aurignacian), wolf, 
reindeer, Bos, Felis, cave bear, stag, Cervidae, etc.; tectiform signs; 
the human hand (see Figs. 119, 121-124, 130, and 139). 


Portable Art: Head of horse engraved on bone. 


* Gargas (Hautes-Pyrénées) 
Cavern in the commune of Aventignan. 
Reference: CARTAILHAC and BREUIL, Anthr., xxi, 129-148 (1910). 


Mural Art: Incised figures of elephant, bison, horse; also entrelacs, ara- 
besques, etc.; human hands in red and black (see Fig. 327); figures of 
bison and horse traced in clay. 


Portable Art: Engraving on stone in Upper Aurignacian deposit. 


Gaubert (Dordogne) 
Rock shelter in the commune of Tayac, near the cave of La Mouthe. 
Reference: RIVIERE, AF AS, 787 (Lyon, 1906). 


Portable Art: Figure of a plant engraved on a metatarsal of a ruminant. 


* Gorge d’Enfer (Dordogne) 


Reference: Girop and MAssEnat, Les stations de l’dge du renne, etc., il, 
pl. i (Paris, J. B. Bailliére et Fils, 1906). 


Mural Art: Figure of a salmon in low relief on ceiling (Middle or Upper 
Aurignacian) of the Abri du Poisson. 


Portable Art: Baton of reindeer horn carved to represent a double phallus. 


430 HUMAN ORIGINS 


* Gourdan (Haute-Gar onne) 
Cave near Montréjeau. 
References: PIETTE, Anthr., xv, 156, 175 (1904); APAR, pls. ii, iv, vii-x, 


XXVii, xxx, Ixvili, Ixxxii—Ixxxiv. 


Portable Art: For the most part engravings on reindeer horn (including 
batons), stone, and bone: anthromorphic figures, Canidae, Rhinoceros 
tichorhinus, Felis, horse, Bos, Cervidae, reindeer, wolf, hind, moose (see 
Fig. 136), goat, chamois, Saiga antelope, seal, bird, and fish; alphabeti- 
form signs (Magdalenian). 


* Gréze, La (Dordogne) 
Rock shelter in the commune of Marquay. 
Reference: CAPITAN, BREUIL, and AMPOULANGE, REA, xiv, 320-325 
(1904). 
Mural Art: Engravings of bisons. 


= 


Harpons, Les (see Lespugue) 
Hoteaux, Les (Ain) 
Cave in the commune of Rossillon. 


Reference: TOURNIER and GUILLON, Les hommes préhs, dans l’ Ain, 105 pp., 
7 pls. (Bourg, 1895). 


Portable Art: Perforated baton with engraved figure of a stag (proto-Mag- 
dalenian). 
* Isturitz (Basses-Pyrénées) 
Cave near the village of Isturitz, some 10 km. (6.25 mi.) east of Hasparren. 
References: Bouts, Anthr., vii, 725 (1896); PASSEMARD, R. Arch., xv, 1-45 
(1922). 
Mural Art: Parietal bas-reliefs of Cervidae. 


Portable Art (Magdalenian): Figures in the round; bas-reliefs; engrav- 
ings of Felidae, Bison, Ursus, Equidae, Cervidae, fish, bird, hare; deco- 
trated batons. 

Lacave (Lot) 


Cave near the village of Lacave. 
Reference: VirE, Anthr., xvi, 411-429 (1905). 


Portable Art (Magdalenian): Engravings on bone and reindeer horn, 
including an antelope head on the latter; decorated baton. 


REPERTORY OF PALEOLITHIC ART 431 


Lacoste (see Planche-Torte) 


** Laugerie-Basse (Dordogne) 


Rock shelters (the classic station, La Grange, and Les Marseilles) in 
the commune of Tayac, near Les Eyzies. 


References: Lartet and Curisty, Relig. aquit., 5, 137, 169, 256-258, 288 
(1865-75); APAR, ii, iv—-vii, xxvii-xxx; PEyRoNy and Maury, RA, 
XXIV, 134-154 (1914); M. Bovurton,: Anthr., xxvii, 1-26 (1916); 
J. Maury, Laugerie-Basse, Les fouilles de M. J-A. Le Bel, 20 pp. 
(Le Mans, imprimerie Mannoyer, 1920). 


Portable Art: Many engravings, chiefly on bone, reindeer horn, and stone, 
also figures in the round and with contours cut away; among the best 
known are the so-called (wrongly) ‘‘combat de rennes”’ engraved on 
schist; ‘‘femme au renne’’ with engraving of horse on reverse side; 
““chasse a l’aurochs’”’; ‘“‘Venus impudique,” a statuette in ivory; poniard 
of reindeer horn carved to represent a reindeer; reindeer on reindeer 
horn; fish on bone; heads of the horse with contours cut away; reindeer 
head in the round; bison and reindeer engraved on stone; head of horse 
engraved on stone; Canidae, wild goat, mammoth, Cervidae, red deer, 
Felis, otter; stone lamps. Laugerie-Basse is perhaps the richest of all 
Paleolithic stations in respect to portable art objects, some 180 examples 
having been found there (see Figs. 105 and 155). 


* Laugerie-Haute (Dordogne) 
Two rock shelters in the commune of Tayac, near Les Eyzies. 


References: CFG, Figs. 139, 169; MacCurpy, Amer. anthr., N.S., xxv, 
72-89 (1923). 

Portable Art: Decorated baton of reindeer horn (stag heads); painting ona 
block of limestone; glutton engraved on reindeer horn; head of horse 
engraved on young reindeer horn; two mammoths engraved on reindeer 
horn; head of musk ox carved from limestone (in the round); bas-reliefs 
on limestone, including head of antelope; equine figure engraved on 
limestone slab (see Fig. 134). 


* Laussel (Dordogne) 


Rock shelter in the valley of the Beune, on the domain of Laussel, 
commune of Marquay. 


Reference: LALANNE, Anthr., xxiii, 129-149 (1912). 


Portable Art: Five human figures in relief on stone, the best known being 
the “‘ Venus of Laussel,”’ a female figure holding a bison horn (see Fig. 162). 


432 HUMAN ORIGINS 


The figure had been painted, some of the ocher being still visible. One of 
two others belonging to the same female type is in the Berlin Museum 
fiir Vélkerkunde. A fourth relief is an athletic male type (see Fig. 
165), and the fifth a group of two figures, one a female, the other 
probably a male. Relief figures of a horse, hyena, and hind, the head 
of the last engraved on the reverse side of the stone. 


* Lespugne, also known as Lespugue (Haute-Garonne) 
Grotte des Harpons, Grotte des Rideaux, and Grotte des Boeufs. 


References: DE SAINT-PERIER, BSPF, ix, 210-212, 498-518 (1912); DE 
SAINT-PERIER, Anthr., Xxx, 209-234 (1920); tbid., xxxii, 361-381. (1922). 


Portable Art: Magdalenian engravings on bone, chiefly of the horse also 
of cave bear and fish (Grotte des Harpons and Grotte des Boeufs); 
stylistic sculpture in bas-relief on reindeer horn in the form of circles and 
sigmoid patterns similar to that from Arudy and Lourdes (Grotte des 
Haroors): 

Upper Aurignacian female ivory statuette (Grotte des Rideaux), 14.7 cm. in 
height, discovered in 1922 (see Fig. 159); the same type as those from 
Grimaldi, Brassempouy, Willendorf, etc. 


** Limeuil (Dordogne) 

Rock shelter at the mouth of the Vézére river. 
Reference: Capitan, PEyrony, and Bouyssonir, AJB, 124-131 (1913). 
Portable Art (Magdalenian): Many engravings, chiefly on stone and 

reindeer horn, of reindeer, horse, bison, Bos, and wild goat; red deer 

engraved on a baton. 

Liveyre (Dordogne) 
Cave in the commune of Tursac. 


References: RIviERE, CPF, 490-491 (Périgueux, 1905); Bourton, HP, 39 
(1906). 


Portable Art: Engravings on stone pendants (reindeer, wild goat, etc.); 
animal head engraved on a baton of reindeer horn. 


** Lorthet (Hautes-Pyrénées) . 
Cavern in the valley of the Neste. 


References: PIETTE, Anthr., xv, 129-176 (1904); APAR, ii, iv, vii, x, xxx, 
XXX1x—xlii, xl vii, lx. 


REPERTORY OF PALEOLITHIC ART 433 


Portable Art (Upper Magdalenian): Various engravings on stone and 
reindeer horn (Canidae, horse, Cervidae, Bovidae, reindeer, hind, goat, 
roebuck, glutton, fish); figures with contours cut away (see Fig. 127). 


** Lourdes (Hautes-Pyrénées) 
Cave called L’Espelunge or Les Espélugues. 
References: PIETTE, Anthr., xvii, 27-53 (1906); APAR, ii, xi-xv, xvii- 
XXV1, XXX1i-XXXVII1, XCVili-c. 


Portable Art (Magdalenian): Many sculptured figures and engravings 
including conventionalized designs derived from the eye, horn, and 
other animal features (see Fig. 133); horsehead pendants with contours 
cut away; figures of the horse (see Fig. 172), Bovidae, bison, reindeer, 
bird, Cervidae, red deer, cave bear, fish, rhinoceros, wolf (on reindeer 
horn). 


9 


** Madeleine, La (Dordogne) 


Rock shelter on the right bank of the Vézére, commune of Tursac (see 
Figs. 93 and 94). 


Reference: LARTET and Curisty, Relig. aquit., 5, 20, 137, 168, 206, 245, 
255, 205 (1865-75). 


Portable Art (Magdalenian): Many important examples, including en- 
graved and sculptured dart throwers, one in ivory representing the 
hyena (see Fig. 104); figures of the reindeer, horse, red deer, Bovidae, 
Cervidae, ruminants, bison (see Fig. 173), Felis, Homo, mammoth. La 
Madeleine is one of the richest stations in portable art after Laugerie- 
Basse. 


Mairie, La (see Teyjat) 


Marcamps (Gironde) 
Grotte des Fées, near the cave of Pair-non-Pair. 
Reference: Darreau, Mém. Soc. arch. de Bordeaux, i, Pl. II (1875). 


Portable Art: Reindeer horn sculptured to represent human (?) head. 


Marcenac (Lot) 


Cavern in the commune of Cabrerets, near the village of Cabrerets. 
Explored by the Abbé Lemozi in 1920. 


Reference: Lemozi, BSPF, xvii, 7 pp. (1920). 


434 HUMAN ORIGINS 


Mural Art (Aurignacian): Drawings of bison and horse in color; engrav- 


ings of red deer and wild goat; groups of incised parallel lines as at 
Gargas. 


* Marsoulas (Haute-Garonne) 
Cave in the commune of Marsoulas, near Salies-du-Salat. 


Reference: CARTAILHAC and BrREvIL, Anthr., xvi, 431-444 (1905). 


Mural Art: Engravings and paintings of the bison and Bos; engravings of 
the horse and wild goat, Cervidae; 


anthropomorphic figures; various 
signs, including tectiforms in color, 


Portable Art: Engraving of bison on bone (Lower Magdalenian). 


** Mas d’Azil (Ariége) 


Stations in a subterranean gallery on the Arise river (see Fig. 255). 


References: PIETTE, Axthr., xv, 129-176 (1904); APAR, xxxi, xliii—xlvi, 
xlviti-lix, lxi-lxviu, lxix, xciv-xcvii; BEGOUEN and BREvIL, Bull. Soc. 
arch. du Midi de la France (Toulouse, 1912-13). 


Mural Art: Engravings and paintings in red of hind, reindeer, horse, and 
bison. 


Portable Art (Magdalenian): Many sculptured and engraved figures 
including the horse, reindeer, wild goat, Bovidae, Bos, Canidae, Cervidae, 


Equidae, red deer, ruminant, bison, bird (see Fig. 103), fish, antelope, 
goat, wild boar, Homo, anthropomorphic figures (see Fig. 168). 


Massat (Ariége) . 
Two caves, an upper and a lower. 


Reference: G. DE MortTILitet, Mat., iv, 467 (1868). 


Portable Art (Magdalenian): Engravings on stone, bone, and reindeer 


horn; noted for engraving of bear on pebble; bear’s head on a baton 
of staghorn; Cervidae, Capridae, reindeer. 


Monconfort, or Montconfort (Haute-Garonne) 


Rock shelter at Saint-Martory. 


Reference: A. pE MortILLetT, BM SA, sth ser., i, 261 (1900). 
Portable Art: Engraved bone. 


-_ | 


BouEBRTORY OF PALEOLITHIC. ART 435 


* Montespan (Haute-Garonne) 


Cave between Saint-Gaudens and Saint-Martory. 
Discovered by Norbert Casteret in August, 1923. 
Explored by N. Casteret. 


References: Begouen and Casteret, RA, xxxili, 533-545 (1923); Capitan, 
tbid., 545-550 (1923); Illustrated London News, Nov. 3, 1923. 


Mural Art: Some twenty animal figures modeled (in the round) in clay 
and partially destroyed by the action of the elements. A headless bear, 
which might once have been provided with a real bear’s head, since 
fragments of a skull of Ursus were found between the paws of the 
statue (length 1.10 m.); two great felines leaning against the wall 
(1.50 and 1.60 m.); two horses in high relief; horses and bisons (ancient 
Magdalenian) incised in the clay of the cavern floor (see Fig. 149) and 
engraved on the wall: human vulva modeled on a plaque of clay. 


Montfort (Ariége) 
Rock shelters on the Salat river, near Saint-Girons. 


References: ALCALDE DEL R10, BREvIL, and SrERRA, CRC, Fig. 219 (2); 
BEGOUEN, CUGUILLERE, and MIQUEL, RA, xxxii, 230-232 (1922). 


Portable Art (Magdalenian): Head of hind engraved on stone; engraving 
on bone. 


Montgaudier (Charente) 
Cave in the commune of Montbron. 
Reference: CARTAILHAC, France préh., 2d edit., Fig. 41 (Paris, 1903). 


Portable Art (Upper Magdalenian): Baton of reindeer horn with engraved 
figures of eels and seals. 


Morts, Les (see Planche-Torte) 
* Mouthe, La (Dordogne) 


Cavern in the village of La Mouthe, commune of Tayac. 


Reference: Rrivibre, Les parois gravées et peintes de la Grotte de la Mouthe 
(Paris, Sleicher Fréres, 2d edit., 1905). 


Mural Art: Engravings and paintings of mammoth, wild goat, horse, 
bison, reindeer, etc. 


Portable Art: Stone lamp with engraved figure of wild goat on the bottom. 


436 HUMAN ORIGINS 


Mouthiers (Charente) 
Cave near Angouléme. 


Reference: G. CHauvet, BSAHC (1910). 


Portable Art: Ornamented harpoon. 


Murat (Lot) 


Rock shelter in the Alzou valley near Rocamadour. 
Explored by the Abbé Lemozi. 


Reference: Lemozi, BSPF, xvii, 7 pp. (1920). 


Portable Art: Engravings of the horse on stone (Magdalenian); hind 
engraved on a pebble. 


Nancy (Dordogne) 
Cave at Vieil-Mouly, commune of Sireuil. 
Reference: CAPITAN, BREviL, and Peyrony, Anthr., xxvi, 515-517 (1915). 


Mural Art: Engravings and low reliefs of the horse, bison, and wild goat. 


Neschers (Puy-de-Déme) 
Rock shelter on the slopes of Mount Tartaret, at Blanzat. 


References: PoMMEROL, AFAS, ii, 666 (1876); BouLr, La géogr., xiii, 
359-363 (1906). 


Portable Art (Magdalenian): Engraving of horse on reindeer horn. 


** Niaux (Ariége) 
Cavern in the commune of Niaux, near Tarascon. 
Reference: CARTAILHAC and BREvIL, Anthr., xix, 15-46 (1908). 


Mural Art: Many drawings, mostly in black, of the bison, horse, wild goat, 
etc., some represented as wounded by darts; signs in red and black; 
club-shaped figures; figures of fish traced in the clay of the cavern floor. 


Ombrive, L’ (Ariége) 


Cavern near Niaux. 


Reference: J. B. NouLet, Archives, du Musée hist. nat. Toulouse, 89-128 
(1882). 


Mural Art: Figure of a bison in black. 


REPERTORY OF PALEOLITHIC ART 437 


Oullins (Gard) 


Station in the commune of Gard. 
Reference: RP, 281 (1907). 
Mural Art: Engravings. 
* Pair-non-Pair (Gironde) 
Cave at Marcamps. 
Reference: F. DALEAU, Actes Soc. arch., 236 (Bordeaux, 1897). 


Mural Art (Middle Aurignacian): Engravings including a hind, bison, 
mammoth, and ruminant (see Fig. 114); facsimile of a Cypraea shell 
carved from ivory with a large loop for suspension. 


Pépue, La (Dordogne) 
Rock shelter at Peyrelevade in the commune of Manaurie. 
Reference: Pryrony, RA, xxxii, 116 (1922). 


Mural Art: Crude mural figures of horse and a horned animal incised and 
suggested by contours of the rock itself. 


* Placard, Le (Charente) 
Cave near Rochebertier, commune of Vilhonneur (see Fig. 252). 
Reference: CHAUVET, BSAHC, 242 (1896); APAR, I, xvi. 


Portable Art (Magdalenian): Sculptured figures and engravings (see Fig. 97), 
including alphabetiform signs on a bird bone (see Fig. 179), figures of 
Bovidae, Cervidae, hind, fish, horse, bison, fox (see Fig. 175), and 
Rhinoceros tichorhinus. 


Planche-Torte (Corréze) 
Several caves, Lacoste, Pré-Aubert, Les Morts, and Bellet, near Brive. 


References: L. BArpon, J. and A. BouyssoniE, La Grotte Lacoste (Brive, 
1910); L. BAarRpon, J. and A. Bouysonnie, REA, xx, 28-40, 60-71 
(1910); ibid., xxx, 177-189 (1920). 


Portable Art (Aurignacian): Animal head engraved on slate (Lacoste); 
wild goat engraved on bone (Les Morts); engraving of horse (?) on stone 
(Pré-Aubert); engraving of hind on stone (Bellet). 


438 HUMAN ORIGINS 


Poisson, Grotte du (see Gorge d’Enfer) 


Pont-du-Gard (Gard) 
Cave of La Salpétriére, commune of Vers. 
Reference: Cazatis, Mat., vii, Pl. 2 (1871). 


Portable Art: Figures of fish and horse on bone. 


* Portel, Le (Ariége) 
Cave in the commune of Loubez. 


References: BrevuiL, L. JAmMmMES, and R. JEANNEL, AS (June 1, 1908); 
JAMMES and JEANNEL, AFAS, 811-813 (Lille, 1909). 


Mural Art: Figures in red and black, including horse, bison, red deer, 
reindeer, a human figure, and various signs. 


Portable Art (Magdalenian): Figures with contours cut away. 


Pouzet, Le (Dordogne) 
Cave on the left bank of the Vézére, at Terrasson. 
Reference: CFG, 180. 


Portable Art: Fragmentary figure of Cervus elaphus engraved on reindeer 
horn. 


Pradiéres (Ariége) 
Cavern near Tarascon. 
Reference: CARTAILHAC, Anthr., xxi, 149—150 (1910). 


Mural Art: Spots in red. 


Raymonden (Dordogne) 


Rock shelter in the commune of Chancelade, 7 km. northwest of 
Périgueux. 


References: F&aux, Bull. Soc. arch. et hist. Périgord, 42 (1875); BREUvIL, 
REA, Xv, 154-155 (1905). 


Portable Art (Magdalenian): Engraved batons; bone button with figure 
of mammoth engraved on each side; figures of Homo and Bison or 
(Ovibos?) on bone (see Fig. 137); figures of horse on reindeer horn and 
bone; a mammoth on a bone point; Cervidae; hind; bird. 


— 


Ree ek TORY OF PALEOLITHIC ART 439 


Rebiéres, Les (Dordogne) 
Rock shelter of Les Rebiéres II, or Durand-Ruel. 
Reference: PiTTarD, Anthr., xxiii, 307-311 (1912). 


Portable Art: Engraving of moose on a pebble (Middle Aurignacian). 


Rey (Dordogne) 
Cavern in the valley of the Beune, near Les Eyzies. 


References: RIvIERE, AFAS, ii, 714-717 (Caen, 1894); MAcCuRDy, Amer. 
anthr., N.S., xxv, 72-89 (1923). 


Portable Art: Figures of fish sculptured on ribs, one in the Museum at 


Saint-Germain (see Fig. 177), the other in Yale University Museum 
(Middle Magdalenian). 


Rideaux, Les (see Lespugue) 


Riviére-de-Tulle 
Rock shelter near Lacave. 
Reference: VirE, Anthr., xx, 273-282 (1909). 


Portable Art: Anthropomorphic figure engraved on reindeer horn; alpha- 
betiform signs engraved on reindeer horn. 


Roc, Le, or La Grotte du Roc (Charente) 
Cave in the commune of Sers. 
Reference: A. FavrAup, REA, xviii, 407-423 (1908). 
Portable Art: Engraved bone. 


Roches, Les (Dordogne) 


Rock shelters of Blanchard, Délage, and Labatut in the valley of Les 
Roches, commune of Sergeac. 


References: L. Dipon, L’abri Blanchard des Roches, 45 pp. (Périgueux, 
1911); BOULE, Anthr., xxv, 230 (1914). 


Portable Art: Sculptured reindeer horn; engravings; drawings in color, 
on stone, including Homo (vulva and phallus), Cervidae, Equidae, and 
mammoth. 


440 HUMAN ORIGINS 


Roussignol, or Les Pouzats (Lot) 
Cave at Reilhac, near Gramat, 


Reference: CARTAILHAC and Boute, La Grotte de Reilhac, Causses du Lot, 
69 pp. (Lyon, 1889). 


Portable Art: Sculptured reindeer horn with perforation and suggestion of 
eye and mouth at one end; engraved bone. 


Sainte-Eulalie (Lot) 


Cavern in the commune of Espagnac-Sainte-Eulalie. 
Explored by the Abbé Lemozi. 


Reference: Lemozi, BS PF, xvii, 7 pp. (1920). 


Mural Art: Engravings of reindeer and horse. 


* Saint-Marcel (Indre) 
Rock shelter and cave on the Creuse, below Argenton. 

Reference: BREUIL, Anthr., xiii, 145-165 (1902). _ 

Portable Art (Magdalenian): Galloping reindeer engraved on schist; 
engraved bone pendant; engraved bone amulet similar to Australian 
churinga; sculptured head of horse on bone. 

Saint-Mihiel (Meuse) 
Rock shelter of La Roche-Plate. 
Reference: BrEvIL, REA, xv, 150-151 (1905). 
Portable Art: Fragmentary figure of -horse engraved on reindeer horn; 


head of mammoth and Cervidae engraved on bone point. 


Saut-du-Perron (Loire) 


Station in the commune of Villerest. 
Reference: S. REINACH, Répertoire de l’art quaternaire, 176 (Paris, 1913). 
Portable Art: Indistinct engravings, communicated by Déchelette. 


Savigné (see Chaffaud) 
Solutré (Saéne-et-Loire) 
La Vigne de Séve adjoining the Crot du Charnier, near Macon. 
Reference: REINACH, Répertoire de l’art quaternaire, 178 (Paris, 1913). 


Portable Art (Solutrean): Engraving on bone; figures in relief on stone. 


a a ae —e oe 


Roem LORY “OF PALEOLITHIC ART 441 


* Sordes (Landes) 
Cave of Duruthy and rock shelter of Dufaure, near Sordes. 


References: LARTET and CHAPLAIN-DuparRc, Mat., 2d ser., ix, 101-167 
(1874); Breuir and DUBALEN, REA, xi, 259 (1901). 


Portable Art (Magdalenian): About fifty perforated canines, three of 
Felis, the remainder of Ursus ferox, decorated with incised designs, geo- 
metric for the most part, but including a realistic figure of a fish and one 
of a seal (Duruthy); engraving of a horse on stone (Dufaure). 


Soucy, or Souci (Dordogne) 
Rock shelter in the commune of Lalinde. 


References: G. DE MortTILieEt, L’homme, ii, 731 (1885); CFG, 177; PEy- 
roNY, Bull. Soc. hist. et. arch. du Périgord, 8 pp. (1918). 


Portable Art: Engravings of bird, Equidae, and Cervidae on stone, bone, 
and reindeer horn. 
Spugo (Haute-Garonne) 


Group of caves at Ganties-les-Bains, near Saint-Martory. 
Explored by M. Basset and J. Cazedessus. 


Reference: CAzEDESSUS, Gisements préhistoriques de la Spugo a Ganties-les- 
Bains (Hte.-Garonne) (Saint-Gaudens, 1923). 


Portable Art (Magdalenian): Engravings of horse and bison on bone and 
stone. 
Terme Pialat (Dordogne) 
Station near Combe-Capelle. 


Reference: A. DELuGIN, Relief sur pierre Aurignacien a representations 
humaines (Périgueux, 1914). 
Art: Relief figures of Homo on a block of limestone (Aurignacian). 


** Teyjat (Dordogne) 
Cavern of La Mairie and rock shelter of Mége. 


References: CAPITAN, BREUIL, PEYRONY, and BouRRINET, REA, xvi, 
196-212 (1906); ibid., xviii, 153-173, 198-218 (1908);. ibid., xix, 62-76 
(1909); CAPITAN, BREUIL, PEyRoNy, and BourRINET, CIA, 1, 498-514 
(Geneva, 1912). 


442 HUMAN ORIGINS 


Mural Art (Middle Magdalenian): Engravings on blocks of stalagmite of 
Bos, Bison, bear, horse, reindeer, red deer (La Mairie) (see Fig. 120). 


Portable Art (Upper Magdalenian): Herd of reindeer engraved on a wing 
bone of an eagle (see Fig. 131); head of a horse carved from jet; stylistic 
engravings on a large rib; animal head with pointed muzzle emphasized 
by incised lines for mouth; coral amulet cut in the round; limestone 
lamp with engraving on bottom; engraving of a horse on a sacrum; 
three horses on a bird bone; three bisons on a bone, two wounded by 
darts; fish on bone (La Mairie). Engraved baton of staghorn with 
engravings of mare and foal, hind, eels, swans, and diminutive figures 
with chamois-head masks (see Fig. 167); stag heads, phallus, seal, etc., 
engraved on wands of reindeer horn (Mége). 


** Trois-Fréres, Les (Ariége) 
Cavern in the commune of Montesquieu-Avantes. 
Reference: Count BEGOUEN, AIB, 303 (1920). 


Mural Art: More than 400 engravings, two of which (the scorcerer and the 
lion) are outlined in black (see Fig. 151); they include bear, horse, 
wild ass, bison, deer, reindeer, wild goat, mammoth, rhinoceros, owl, 
claviform figures, tectiforms, red and black spots, imprints of the human 
hand. 


Portable Art: Engravings on bone and reindeer horn, including a fish on 
bone. 
** Tuc d’Audoubert (Ariége) 
Cavern in the commune of Montesquieu-Avantes (see Figs. 145 and 146). 


References: Count BEGOUEN, CIA, i, 489-497 (Geneva, 1912); BEGOUEN, 
Anthr. xxiii, 657-665 (1912). 


Mural Art: Engravings of bison, horse (see Fig. 147), and reindeer (see 
Fig. 181); signs in color; claviform figures; two bisons modeled in 
clay of the cavern floor (see Fig. 148); one sketched in the clay but 
left unfinished; another, a small one, has been removed to the museum 
at Saint-Germain. 


Portable Art: Figure of horse and Cervidae with contours cut away. 


Vache, La (Ariége) 
Cave in the commune of Alliat, opposite Niaux. 


Reference: GARRIGOU, Grotte de la Vache (1867). 


REPERTORY OF PALEOLITHIC ART 443 
Mural Art: Figures in red, black, and yellow, including stylistic human 
representations. 


Portable Art (Magdalenian): Figures of Bovidae and seal cn bone. 


Veyrier, Le (Haute-Savoie) 
Cave at the foot of the Saléve. 
Reference: Breuit, CJA, i, 228 (Geneva, 1912). 


Portable Art (Upper Magdalenian): Baton with engraving of plant on 
one side and wild goat on the other (see Fig. 178). 


Zouzette, La (Haute-Marne) 


Cavern near Farincourt. 


Reference: A. BoviLiEROT, Bull. Soc, agric., sct., et arts de la Haute-Saéne, 
vi, 13, and vii, 29. 


Portable Art: Engraving on stone. 


GERMANY 


Andernach (Rhine) 


Loess station in Martinsberg. 
Reference: WIEGERS, PZ, i, 18 (1909). 


Portable Art (Magdalenian): Base of staghorn carved to represent a bird 
(see Fig. 176). 


Klause (Bavaria) 
Several caves near Neu-Essing. 
Reference: OBERMAIER, Anthr., xxv, 254-263 (1914). 


Portable Art (Upper Magdalenian): Number of stone plaques (lithographic 
colored); engraving of mammoth on ivory. 


Mainz (Hesse) 


Loess station under a Roman castellum within the city limits. 
Discovered by Otto Schmidtgen in 1922. 


Portable Art (Aurignacian): Lower half of two female statuettes in the style 
of Brassempouy and Willendorf. 


dit HUMAN ORIGINS 


Obercassel (Rhine) 
Station in diluvial deposits, near Bonn. 
Reference: Max VERWORN, Die Naturwissenschaften, II, 645-646 (1914). 


Portable Art: Bone polisher with head carved to represent that of a rodent, 
and the back of the flat shaft ornamented with an incised pattern; 
head of a horse engraved on both sides of a flat piece of bone, with 
contours cut away. 

Schussenquelle (Wurttemberg) 
Loess station near Schussenried. 


Reference: OBERMAIER, MJ, 281. 


Portable Art (Middle Magdalenian): Engraving of reindeer on reindeer 
horn. 


Wildscheuer (Nassau) 
Cave at Steeten an der Lahn. 
Reference: DVD, Pl. xxxv. 


Portable Art (Upper Aurignacian): Chevrons engraved on bird bone. 


HUNGARY 


Jankovics (Bikk Mountains) 
Cave near Esztergom. 
Reference: HILLEBRAND, W PZ. vi, 14-39 (1919). 


Portable Art: Stylistic animal head of stone; decorated amulet of ivory. 


ITALY 


* Barma Grande (Liguria) 
Cave in the commune of Grimaldi, near Mentone. 


References: REINACH, Anthr., ix, 26-31 (1898); PreTTE, BMSA, sth ser., 
11) 9773-779 (1002). 


Portable Art: Five human female figurines of crystalline talc (bushman type) 
(see Figs. 163 and 164) also a negroid head and a male figurine. 


REPERTORY OF PALEOLITHIC ART 445 


Romanelli (Otranto) 
Cave near Castro. 


References: Moccut, C/A, i, 267-268 (Geneva, 1912); G. A. BLanc, AAE, 
1, 65-103 (1920). 


Mural Art: Many engraved figures of birds, also one of the horse. 


POLAND 
Maszycka (Galicia) 
Cavern on the left bank of the Pradnik, near Krakau. 
Reference: HoERNES, DME, 175-178. 


Portable Art (Magdalenian): Stylistic patterns on bone implements. 


Wierzchow (Galicia) 


Caverns in the Rudava valley, near Krakau; the lower is also known as 
the Cavern of the Mammoth. 


References: Zavisza, MSA, 2d ser., i, 439-447 (1873); Zavisza, CIA, i, 
69-75 (Stockholm, 1874). 


Portable Art: Engraving of fish on reindeer horn; ivory ornaments. 


RUSSIA 
Cyrill Street, Kief (Ukraine) 
Loess station in the city of Kief. 
Reference: OBERMAIER, MV, 315. 


Portable Art: Engravings on the tip of a mammoth tusk. 


Mezine (Ukraine) 


Loess station on the Desna near the village of Mezine (Gov. of 
Chernigov). 


References: Tu. Vorxkov, CIA, i, 415-428 (Geneva, 1912); LEvVKo 
TCHIKALENKO, Etude sur levolution de l’ornement géométrique a l Epoque 
Paléolithique, Doctor’s Dissertation, Publ. of the Ukrainian University 
at Prague, 49 pp. (Govt. Printing Press, Prague, 1923). 


Portable Art (Upper Aurignacian or perhaps Magdalenian): Ornaments 
carved from ivory (meanders and bird); stylistic figures in the round, 
probably phallic. 


446 HUMAN ORIGINS 


SPAIN 


Aguas de Novales, Las (Santander) 
Cavern 14 km. (8.75 mi.) from Torre la Vega. 
Reference: CRC, 46-48, pls. xxxi—xxxii. 


Mural Art: Frescoes of bison; signs. 


* Albarracin (Teruel) 


Rock shelters and caves known locally as Los Toricos, on the left bank 
of the Guadalquiver; Fuente del Cabrerizo, El Navazo, and Callejon del 
Plou. 


References: BREUIL and CaBre, Anthr., xxii, 641-648 (1911); CABRE, 
CTPP, No. 4, 180-187 (1015). 


Mural Art: Paintings of Bos and Homo; engravings of Equus and Cervus 
elaphus. 


* Alpera (Albacete) 
Two caves: La Vieja and El Queso. 


References: BrREvuIL, GomeEz, and CaABrRE, Anthr., xxiii,.529-561 (1912); 
CABRE ~CIPP,3Ne. I, 187-205) (1o15): 


Mural Art: Frescoes, chiefly of hunting scenes. (a) La Vieja; stag, wild 
goat, Bos, Canis, hunters, women in the fashion of Cogul. (b) El 
Queso: elk, wild goat, hunter. The oldest figures are in red, as at 
Cantos de la Visera. 


** Altamira (Santander) 
Cavern near Santillana del Mar. 


References: CARTAILHAC, Anthr., xiii, 348-354 (1902); CA, viiit+287 pp., 
37 pls.; CRC, 194-204, pls. xci-c,; 


Mural Art: Engravings, drawings in color, and frescoes of bison, horse, 
red deer, Capridae, Bos, wild boar, chamois, Cervidae, Elephas; the first 
discovery of Paleolithic mural art. The principal group forms a great 
panel on the ceiling of the left chamber near the entrance (the figures 
vary in length from 1.5 to 2.5 m.); claviform signs (see Figs. 7, 110 
and 113). 


Portable Art: Engravings on bone and staghorn (chamois, hind) (see 
Bignirc2). 


REPERTORY OF PALEOLITHIC ART 447 


Arco, El (Cadiz) 


Cave in the Pefion del Tajo de las Figuras, near the cave of Taio de las 
Figuras, region of Laguna de la Janda. 


Reference: Capre and HERNANDEZ-PacHECO, CIPP, No. 3, 27-28, pls. 
iii-iv (1914). 


Mural Art: Figures in red of Homo, Cervidae, Bovidae, etc.; signs in red, 
composed of points and straight and wavy lines. 


Ardales (see Dofia Trinidad) 


Atapuerca, La (Burgos) 
Cave east of the city of Burgos, near Ybeas. 
Reference: Breuit and OBERMAIER, Anthr., xxiv, 5-8 (1913). 


Mural Art: Signs in color. 


Barranco de Valltorta (see Valltorta) 


Batuecas, Las (Salamanca) 
Series of caves and rock shelters in the Batuecas valley. 
References: Breuit, R. Arch., xix, 224-225 (1912); Brevit, Anthr., 
XxXix, 2-27 (1918-10). 
Mural Art (referred by Breuil to the Azilian Epoch): 
I. Canchal de las cabras Pintadas—many figures in red, brown, 
and white of wild goat, fish, stag, and man 


II. Canchales del Christo (three stations)—figures in bright red 
and dark red 
III. Canchal de Mahoma—figures in red, yellow, and white 
IV. Canchales de la Pizarra—various figures of animals in red and 
brown (wild goat, Bovidae, lynx, Homo) 
V. Canchales del Zarzalon (rock shelter and cave)—stylistic human 
and other figures 


Bolao (Oviedo) 
Cave 2 km. (1.25 mi.) from Llanes, and also near Bolao. 
Reference: BREvIL and OBERMAIER, Anthr., xxv, 236 (1914). 


Mural Art: Tectiform signs in red. 


448 HUMAN ORIGINS 


Buxu, El (Asturias) 
Cave in the region of Cangas de Onis. 


Reference: OBERMAIER and COUNT DE LA VEGA DEL SELLA, CIPP, 
No. 20, 42 pp. (1918). 


Mural Art: Engravings and frescoes of horse, red deer, mountain goat, 
bison, Cervus dama. 


Cala, La (Malaga) 
Cave between Malaga and Palo. 
Reference: BREvIL, Anthr., xxxi, 250-253 (1921). 


Mural Art: Paintings (indistinct), probably late Paleolithic. 


* Calapata (Teruel) 


Rock shelter known locally as Roca del Moro, in the valley of the Ebro, 
near Cretas. 


Reference: BREvIL and CaBre, Anthr., xx, 1-8 (1900). 
Mural Art: Figures of game animals in red and black on the rock surfaces 
(stag, wild goat, Bos). 
Camargo, or Pefia del Mazo (Santander 
Cave at Revilla-Camargo. 
Reference: MV, 163, 212, 342. 


Mural Art: Engravings (Magdalenian). 


* Cantos de la Visera (see Monte Arabi) 


Carasoles del Bosque, Los (Albacete) 
Rock shelter near Alpera. 
Reference: BReEvIL, Anthr., xxvi, 329-331 (1915). 


Mural Art: Stylistic paintings of men and animals. 


** Castillo (Santander) 


Cavern near Puente Viesgo (see Fig. 5). 


Reference: CRC, 112-193, pls. lix—xc. 


REPERTORY OF PALEOLITHIC ART 449 


Mural Art: Frescoes, drawings, and engravings of bison (see Fig. 142), horse, 
Bos, red deer (see Fig. 112), chamois, wild goat, Capridae, Elephas (see 
Fig. 116); figures of human hand in red (see Fig. 169); tectiform signs; 
claviform signs. 


Portable Art: Engravings of red deer on bone and staghorn. 


* Charco del Agua Amarga, El (Teruel) 
Cavern in valley of Charco del Agua Amarga. 
References: Casre, CIPP, No. 1, 152-170 (1915); HF, 240. 


Mural Art: Painted figures of Homo, including females in the style of 
Cogul, Bos, Cervidae, Sus, Cervus elaphus. 


Chiquita de los Trenta (Almeria) 
Cave near Chirivel. 
Reference: Breuit and F. pE Moros, Anthr., xxvi, 332-336 (1915). 


Mural Art: Painted figures of the stag, man, etc. 


Clotilde, La (Santander) 
Cavern near Santa Isabel. 
Reference: CRC, 40-46, pls. xxix—xxx. 


Art: Animal figures of Bos (see Fig. 150) traced in clay (probably 
Aurignacian). 


* Cogul (Lerida) 
Rock shelter in the Ebro valley, 18 km. (11.25 mi.) south of Lerida. 
Reference: BREUIL and CaBré, Anthr., xx, 8-21 (1900). 


Mural Art: Figures in black and red of men and women, the latter in 
skirts (see Fig. 138); Bison, Bos, and Cervidae. 


Cortijo de los Treinta, El (Almeria) 
Cave about 15 km. (9.4 mi.) from Velez Blanco. 
Reference: Casré, CIPP, No. 1, 217 (1915). 


Mural Art: Animal figures in color (stag, wild goat); stylistic human 
figures. 


450 HUMAN ORIGINS 


Coto de la Zarza, El (near boundary between Almeria and Granada) 


Rock shelter 5 km. (3.1 mi.) from Topares. 
Reference: Casre, CIPP, No. 1, 219-220 (10915). 


Mural Art: Figure of mountain goat in color. 


* Covalanas (Santander) 


Cavern near Ramales. 
Reference: CRC, 14-22, pls. iv—xvit. 


Mural Art: Paintings (hind, horse, Bos) and signs. 


Cueto de la Mina (Asturias) 
Cavern near Posada. 
Reference: CoUNT DE LA VEGA DEL SELLA, CIPP, No. 13, 94 pp. (1916). 
Mural Art: Incised lines. | 


Portable Art: Engraved batons. 


Dofia Trinidad (Malaga) 
Cavern near Alora, between Carratraca and Ardales. 
Reference: BREUIL, Anthr., xxxi, 239-250 (1921). 


Mural Art: Engraved and painted Paleolithic figures of animals, chiefly 
the horse and hind. 


Estrecho de Santonje (Almeria) 
Three caves near Velez Blanco. 
Reference: BREvIL, Anthr., xxvi, 335 (1915). 


Mural Art: Paintings of the stag. 


Garcibuey (Salamanca) 
Small cave near the village of Garcibuey. 
References: BREvuIL, Anthr., xxiii, 18 (1912); ibid., xxix, 25-27 (1918-19). 


Mural Art: Stylistic human figures in red; various signs. 


REPERTORY OF PALEOLITHIC ART 451 


7 Grajas, Las (Granada) 
Cave near Almasiles. 


Reference: Breuit and pE Motos, Anthr., xxvi, 332-336 (1915). 
Mural Art: Painted figure of the goat. 
Haza, La (Santander) 
Cave near Ramales. 
Reference: CRC, 11-14, pls. xviti—xxi. 


Mural Art: Figures of the horse, etc., in color. 


Herrerias, Las (Oviedo) 
Cave about 3 km. (1.9 mi.) south of Llanes, also known as Volado. 
Reference: HERNANDEZ-PAcHECO, CIPP, No. 24, 25 (1919). 


Mural Art: Painted signs. 


* Hornos de la Pefia (Santander) 
Cavern in the region of San Felices de Vuelna. 
Reference: CRC, 85-111, pls. 1-lviii. 


Mural Art: Paintings and engravings of the horse, bison, Bos, wild goat, 
red deer; indistinct primitive mural animal figures and signs traced in 
the clay. 


Portable Art: Horse engraved on the frontal bone of a horse (Aurignacian); 
spirals engraved on deerhorn (Magdalenian). 


Jiména (Jaén) 


Cave known locally as La Graja, near Jiména. 


Reference: Gomez Moreno, Institut d’Estudis Catalans, 89-103 (1908); 
HF, 329-330, pl. ro. 


Mural Art: Stylistic human figures in color. 


Lavaderos de Tello, or Desfiladero de Leira (Almeria) 
Rock shelter some 24 km. (15 mi.) from Velez Blanco. 


References: Brevuit and OBERMAIER, Anthr., xxv, 239-242 (1914); CABRE, 
CLPP, Now 1, 218 (1915). 


Mural Art: Figures of the stag in red; stylistic figures of men. 


452 


HUMAN ORIGINS 


Loja, La (Oviedo) 


Cave in the district of Panes, near Buelles. 


Reference: CRC, 53-509. 


Mural Art: Engravings of Bos. 


Meaza (Santander) 


Cave near Comillas. 


Reference: CRC, 51-52. 


Mural Art: Enigmatic figures composed of red spots. 


Minateda (Albacete) 


Great rock shelter near the village of Minateda. 


Reference: BreuiL, Anthr., xxx, 1-50 (1920). 


Mural Art: Thirteen superposed layers of frescoes, as follows, beginning 
with the oldest: 


I. 


8. 
Q. 


Small crude figures in bright red and brown, often stylistic, of 
man and animals 


. Large figures in bright red of man and animals 
. Figures in black or red of man and animals 


Large figures in red of man and animals, analogous to the ancient 
Magdalenian of the Cantabrian Pyrenees 

Small figures outlined in black of man and animals; large figures 
in black or brown of man 

Brown and reddish brown human and animal figures shaded by 
means of lines approximately parallel 

Figures partially filled in by means of flat color and parallel lines 
Reddish-brown figures 

Polychrome animal figures 


The figures, for the most part stylistic, include Homo, red deer, rhinoc- 
eros, wild goat, bird (goose and crane), horse, wild boar, reindeer, chamois, 
saiga, fish, fallow deer, Bos. 


Io. 


Il. 
12. 


13% 


Animal figures in brown and well formed human figures in dark 
brown 

Human and animal figures in deep brown or black 

Human and animal figures in black, brown, or red, clearly in the 
stage of degeneration 

Stylistic human and animal figures in black or reddish brown 


REPERTORY OF PALEOLITHIC ART 453 


* Monte Arabi (Murcia) 
Rock shelters near Yecla known as Cantos de la Visera, and caves. 


References: BREvIL and Burkitt, Anthr., xxvi, 313-328 (1915); CABRE, 
CIPP, No. 1, pp. 208-216 (1915). 


Mural Art: 


I. Cantos de la Visera: small shelter with 43 figures—7 horses, 
4 deer, 4 hinds, 6 oxen, 4 wild goats, etc. 
II. Cantos de la Visera: large shelter with some 73 figures—stag, 
hind, horse, wild goat, man, bird, etc. 
III. Cave of the Mediodia: three panels of stylistic painted figures 


Negra (Albacete) 


Rock shelter near Almansa. 
Reference: BREUIL and BurkiTT, Anthr., xxvi, 324 (1915). 


Mural Art: Stylistic animal figures in color. 


Paloma, La (Cadiz) 


Cave near Facinas y Casas Viejas. 


References: Casprt, CIJPP, No. 1, 208 (1915); HERNANDEZ-PACHECO, 
ibid., Mem. No: 31, 38 pp. -(1923). 


Portable Art: Figures of horse and hind on slate and bone (Middle Mag- 
dalenian). 


Parpallo, El (Valencia) 


Cave near Gandia. 
Reference: BREvUIL and OBERMAIER, Anthr., xxv, 251 (1914). 


Portable Art: Calcareous plaque with engraving of the head of an animal. 


** Pasiega, La (Santander) 


Cavern near Puente Viesgo. 
Reference: PP, 64 pp., 29 pls. 


Mural Art: Engravings and paintings of horse, red deer, bison, Bos, wild 
goat, chamois, Elephas; tectiform signs in red; claviforms; alphabeti- 
form signs. 


454 HUMAN ORIGINS 


* Pefia de Candamo, La (Asturias) 

Cavern in El Cerro de la Pefia, near San Roman de Candamo. 
Reference: HERNANDEZ-PACHECO, CIPP, No. 24, 281 pp. (1919). 
Mural Art: Many drawings and paintings in color (probably Middle 

Magdalenian). 

Pejia (or Piedra) Escrita de Fuencaliente (Ciudad Real) 

Rock shelters at Fuencaliente. 

Reference: HF, 331-332. 


Mural Art: Stylistic human figures in color. 


Penches (Burgos) 


Cave on the Rio Penches. 
Reference: HERNANDEZ-PacHEco, CIPP, No. 17, 34 pp. (1917). 


Mural Art: Engravings and paintings (Magdalenian). 


Pendo, El (Santander) 
Cavern in the district of Escobedo-Camargo. 
Reference: CRC, 35-39, pls. xxii, XXviil. 


Mural Art: Figures of penguins engraved on cavern wall. 


Pefion de la Tabla de Pochico (Jaén) 

Rock shelter some 3 km. (1.9 mi.) from Aldeaquemada. 
Reference: Casre, CIPP, No. 1, 220-221 (1915). 
Mural Art: Figures in red of game animals; stylistic human figures (the 

latter probably Neolithic). 

** Pileta, La (Malaga) 

Cavern about midway between Benaojan and Jimera. 

Reference: PB, 62 pp. 21 pls. 


Mural Art: Engravings and paintings (Paleolithic and post-Paleolithic). 
Breuil noted a superposition of black on red and red on yellow. Figures 
of the horse, wild goat, hind, Bos, bison, Homo in color; engraved figures 
of the fish; serpentiforms and tectiforms. 


Mere LORY OF PALEOLITHIC ART 455 


* Pindal (Asturias) 
Cavern in the district of Riba-de-Deva (see Fig. 182). 
Reference: CRC, 59-81, pls. xxxiii-xlvi. 


Mural Art: Paintings, symbols including club-shaped figures, five of which 
“accompany the figure of a wounded bison (see Fig. 183); drawings in 
red and black of the horse, bison, stag, Elephas, hind; engravings of a 
Spanish mackerel, bison, horse; bison partially engraved and partly 
polychrome. 


Prado del Azogue, El (Jaén) 
Rock shelter near Aldeaquemada. 
Reference: Casre, CIPP, No. 1, 221-222 (1915). 


Mural Art: Figures of the wild goat in color. 


Pretina, or Los Ladornes (Cadiz) 
Cave in Casas Viejas, Sierra de las Momias. 
Reference: Caspre, CIPP, No. 1, 222-223 (1915). 
Mural Art: Paintings in red. 


Quintanal (Oviedo) 
Cave near Balmori, Llanes. 
References: CRC, 83-84; HERNANDEZ-PAcHEco, CIPP, No. 24, 25 (1919). 
Art: Wild boar outlined in clay. 


Salitré (Santander) 
Cavern near Ajanedo-Miera. 
Reference: CRC, 23-26. 
Mural Art: Figures in red of the hind. 


San Antonio (Oviedo) 
Cave near Riba de Sella. 
Reference: BrevIL and OBERMAIER, Anthr., xxv, 237 (1914). 


Mural Art: Small figure of horse in black. 


456 HUMAN: ORIGINS 


San Garcia (Burgos) 
Cave near Santo Domingo de Silvos. 
Reference: BREvIL and OBERMAIER, Anthr., xxiv (1913). 


Mural Art: Human silhouettes; stylistic animal figures; geometric pat- 
terns (probably Neolithic); horse and Homo traced in clay. 


* Santian (Santander) 
Cavern near Puente-Arce. 
Reference: CRC, 26-35, pls. xxi-xxvii. 


Mural Art: Figures in red, some resembling the human hand. 


Sotarriza, La (Santander) 


Cavern near Molinar de Carranza and adjacent to another cave known 
as Cova Negra. 


Reference: CRC, 8-9. 
Mural Art: Figure in black of horse. 


Tajo de las Figuras, El (Cadiz) 


Cave at Casas Viejas in the Pefion del Tajo de las Figuras, near the 
Laguna de la Janda. 


References: CABRE and HERNANDEZ-PAcHECO, CIPP, No. 3 (1914); 
BREUIL, Anthr., xxx, 157 (1920). 


Mural Art: Paintings; stylistic figures of birds, Homo, Cervidae, etc. 
(Neolithic). 


Tortosillas (Valencia) 
Rock shelter near Ayora. 
Reference: BREuIL, GomMEz, and CABRE, Anthr., xxiii, 561 (1912). 
Mural Art: Hunting scene (red deer, chamois, Homo). 
Valle (Santander) 
Cave near Rasines. 
Reference: HF, 170-171. 


Portable Art: Baton of staghorn with engraving of a hind; figures of horse 
and heads of stag engraved on bird bone. 


he eeRTORY OF PALEOLITHIC ART 457 


* Valltorta, Barranco de (Castellén) 


Rock shelters and caves near Albocacer: El Civil, El Arco; Tolls, Rull, 
Mas d’en Josep, and Los Caballos. 


Reference: OBERMAIER and WERNERT, CIPP, No. 23, 134 pp., 26 pls. (1919). 


Mural Art: Paintings representing hunting scenes. 


Velez Blanco (see Estrecho de Santonje) 


Venta de la Perra (Santander) 
Cave near Santona. 
Reference: CRC, 2-8. 


Mural Art: Engraved animal figures (bear, bison) and signs. 


SWITZERLAND 


Freudental (Schaffhausen) 
Cave near Schweizersbild. 
Reference: MV, Fig. 178. 


Portable Art: Bone points with geometric ornament. 


* Kesslerloch (Schaffhausen) 
Cave near Thayngen. 
Reference: APAR, vi, xxx; DVD, pls. xxxi-xxxil. 


Portable Art: Batons with engravings of browsing reindeer, horse, etc.; 
incised figures of horse and woolly rhinoceros (?); head and shoulders 
of musk ox in the round; decorated dart throwers (see Fig. 128). 
Originals in Rosgarten Museum, Constance (Bavaria). 


Schweizersbild (Schaffhausen) 
Rock shelter near Schaffhausen. 


Reference: Nurscu, DASGN, xxxv (1896); Nwtrescu, NDSNG (1902). 


Portable Art: Engravings of Equidae on reindeer horn and stone (Middle 
Magdalenian). 


APPENDIX III 


ON THE PRESERVATION OF PREHISTORIC MONUMENTS 


France.—The motives which prompted early man to choose certain 
sites for his abode rather than others cannot be gauged with certainty. 
Considerations of safety were presumably among the strongest, as were 
also proximity to water and the food supply. Comfort and appeal to 
the zesthetic sense were possibly of secondary importance. 

Among the earliest prolonged dwelling places that have been pre- 
served to us are the natural caves and rock shelters, the habitation 
of some of which date as far back as the beginning of the Mousterian 
Epoch or perhaps even the Acheulian Epoch. Some of these were 
inhabited intermittently for tens of thousands of years before the dawn 
of history; the more nearly they combined the elements that met the 
requirements of safety and proximity to food and drink, as well as 
comfort, the longer and more continuously they were occupied. 

It may be a mere chance that some of these dwelling places most 
favored by man’s more or less continuous presence over vast periods 
of time are likewise beautiful as to situation and sightly in themselves. 
Witness, for example, Placard in Charente; Le Moustier, La Made- 
leine, Laugerie-Haute, Laugerie-Basse, the Abri du Chateau, and 
Laussel to mention only a few in the Vézére valley; and Mas d’Azil, 
Niaux, Tuc d’Audoubert and Trois-Freres in Ariege. More constant, 
however, than beauty of situation is the presence of a water supply: 
a spring, a perennial brook, or a river. 

The most potent factor in determining whether a certain cave or 
rock shelter should be marked for preservation is the human interest 
attaching thereto. Happily there exists in France the necessary admin- 
istrative machinery for the preservation of worth-while monuments, 
both historic and prehistoric. The financial means for obtaining the 
desired results are however just now inadequate, 

The law provides for the classification, or setting aside, of any real 
property (immeuble) to which attaches public interest from the view- 
point of history, prehistory, or art. Such classification is by the decree 
of the Ministre de l’Instruction Publique et des Beaux-Arts. In case 
of failure to come to agreement with the owner, the Council of State 


458 


PREHISTORIC MONUMENTS 459 


may take action by right of eminent domain; the owner is paid for 
any damages he may have suffered by reason of the classification. 

The work of conservation is in the hands of a Commission presided 
over by the Ministre de I’ Instruction Publique et des Beaux-Arts. The 
Commission is composed of three sections: (1) historic monuments ; 
(2) prehistoric monuments; and (3) antiquities and art objects. With 
the exception of plenary meetings of the Commission, each section is 
master of its own deliberations and reports directly to the Ministry. 
The section in charge of prehistoric monuments is limited to fifteen 
members, of which ten are members ex offictis. Each section of the 
Commission directs its own supervisors stationed in the various depart- 
ments of which France is composed. In some departments the Com- 
mission is represented by two supervisors—one for the historic 
monuments and one for the prehistoric. In others there is a supervisor 
for but one class of monuments. Sometimes the two offices are com- 
bined. Still other departments are without local supervision which 
is cared for by some member of the Commission. The supervisors 
are called Deléqués du Ministére de l’ Instruction Publique et des Beaux- 
Arts. Each has charge of the monumenis classés in his own field. 

The classified prehistoric monuments in France belong to two 
categories: those owned outright by the Government, and those over 
which the Government has at least partial control. As soon as a 
privately-owned prehistoric site is classed by the State, that is, becomes 
a monument classé, the owner is no longer in complete control; for 
the State requires that the place be open to the public for at least 
part of the time. On account of this requirement, the wonderful series 
of caverns in Montesquieu-Avantes (Ariege) known as Tuc d’Audou- 
bert, Enlene, and Trois-Fréres are not yet classed as national monu- 
ments. Count Begouen, the present owner, has taken all necessary 
steps to protect and preserve to posterity these priceless monuments 
that have come down to our time through countless ages ; but he prefers 
to limit the visitors to those only who are interested seriously in the 
records the caverns reveal; and these records will be safe as long as 
he and his three sons, the Trois-Fréres, live. 

With the realization of the importance of stratigraphy, or culture 
sequence, as the proper basis for the science of prehistory, the 
desirability, even the necessity of saving im situ a section of the culture 
deposits became self-evident. Such a section could be made not only 
to serve as an object lesson for future students, but also as a gauge 
by which to determine the accuracy of the original explorer of the 
site in question. In the earlier years the life history of many a station 


460 HUMAN ORIGINS 


cf supreme value was completely extinguished by the pick and shovel 
of the undiscerning searcher after specimens; or even of those of 
pioneers gifted beyond the average, but handicapped by ignorance of 
the true significance of the phenomena they were uncovering. 

What a pity it is, for example, that Cro-Magnon had to be dis- 
covered in 1868 instead of 1921. It is now an empty shell of a rock 
shelter by the roadside and back of a dwelling. The evidence by 
which one might have determined the exact age of the skeletons found 
there has vanished beyond recall; and we shall never be quite sure 
to which phase of the Upper Paleolithic they belong. No trace of any 
of the deposits is left, and as a site Cro-Magnon is but a memory. 

Placard in Charente is another example of the sacrifice of a station 
of great importance. The interior of the cave was emptied at an early 
date, rather hurriedly and under absentee supervision. One can still 
find valuable specimens by digging in the refuse heap. Such matters 
are managed differently now although of course no effort is made to 
preserve sites that are relatively insignificant. 

There are two classes of Paleolithic stations that are well worth 
while: (1) those with mural art, and (2) those which have superposed 
culture-bearing deposits representing more than one epoch, or a succes- 
sion of hearths belonging to various phases of the same epoch. Among 
the foremost examples of the first class are: Font-de-Gaume, Com- 
barelles, La Mouthe, La Mairie, and Cap Blanc in Dordogne; Niaux, 
Marsoulas, Tuc d’Audoubert, and Trois-Fréres in Ariége; and Gargas 
in Hautes-Pyrenéees. The preservation of these sites is easy with the 
exception of Cap Blanc; for they are subterranean caverns, accessible 
through a small entrance which can be closed with but little expense. 
Tuc d’Audoubert and Trois-Freres are both so difficult of access that 
even a closed gate would seem to be a superfluity. It is fortunate that 
elmost everywhere the caves are protected automatically by local taboo 
born of mystery and legend. Once a gateway is established, a caretaker, 
usually some one living near-by, has the key and the lighting facilities 
and accompanies all visitors. 

At Cap Blanc the mural art in the form of several figures of the 
horse in low relief and almost life size, are on the wall of a rock 
shelter. They had been protected through the ages alike from the 
elements and vandal hands by a formation of talus until their discovery 
about 1910. Immediately thereafter a solidly built stone lean-to was 
erected which affords ample protection for the relief figures and for 
a cast of the human skeleton found there. 

Stations with superposed culture-bearing deposits have not fared 


PREHISTORIC MONUMENTS 461 


so well as have those containing mural art. These deposits are usually 
at the base of overhanging rocks or just outside the entrance to caves. 
The problem of future protection thus at once becomes a more difficult 
one. Mere enclosure with gateway, lock, and key will not suffice; 
there must also be a roof. Happily, such difficulties are not insur- 
mountable and are being met in a number of instances, notably at Le 
Moustier, Laugerie-Basse and Marseilles, the Abri du Chateau at Les 
Eyzies, and La Ferrassie, to mention Dordogne alone. 

The site that has been preserved at Le Moustier is the lower rock 
shelter where Hauser found a Neandertal skeleton in 1908. The State 
has placed a roof over the carefully prepared section and the entire 
shelter is surrounded by a fence with gate. 

The site at Les Eyzies known as the Abri du Chateau, has had 
an eventful history. Twice it was inhabited for a considerable period 
of time by Magdalenian man. Then in the eleventh century A.D., 
after a lapse of many thousands of years, the foundations of a beauti- 
ful chateau were begun. Signs of the two previous occupations were 
destroyed until the builders came to a great block of fallen stone. 
This they left untouched and with it the hidden deposits beneath. 
Centuries passed and the chateau itself became a ruin. Other centuries 
came and with them the need of a Government Paleolithic museum at 
Les Eyzies. For this purpose the old chateau was chosen and in part 
restored. The chateau museum which is now open to the public, 
contains collections from various Dordogne sites in addition to a 
synoptic collection. The most important of its exhibits however is 
the carefully prepared section under the great fallen rock, representing 
in situ two distinct levels of Magdalenian occupation. In a case of 
the museum proper is a series of specimens including an engraving 
on bone of more than passing significance, also batons and harpoons 
of reindeer horn, found by Peyrony while preparing the section. In 
the Abri du Chateau we have a happy combination of the historic 
and prehistoric national monuments (see Fig. 4). 

The double station of Laugerie-Basse and Les Marseilles include 
not only a section of relic-bearing deposits but also a museum; the 
latter however is a simple modern building constructed for the purpose 
by Monsieur Le Bel who owns the two prehistoric sites in question 
(see Fig. 155). Like the Abri du Chateau, the two rock shelters at 
Laugerie-Basse are beautiful for situation, and there are never-failing 
springs at all three. The classic station of Laugerie-Basse is widely 
known because of the portable art objects found there, comprising a 
reindeer carved on the handle of a poniard of reindeer horn; a female 


462 HUMAN ORIGINS 


figurine in ivory ; engraving on schist, known as the “combat de rennes” ; 
the “femme au renne’’; the man chasing a wild ox, and many other 
examples. A Magdalenian human skeleton was likewise found there 
many years ago. The antiquities from Laugerie-Basse are for the 
most part in the national museum at Saint-Germain. 

The rock shelter of Marseilles at Laugerie-Basse was only recently 
explored. The principal collections from it are in the adjoining museum 
and in the private collection of Monsieur Le Bel in Paris. Back of 
and above Marseilles is a cavern some 25 meters deep, which served 
as a refuge in Magdalenian times. The two stations are already classi- 
fied as national monuments and it is understood that the present owner 
will eventually give them as well as his collections to the Government. 

La Ferrassie exhibits one of the most important series of super- 
posed deposits ever discovered. The greater part of the deposits of 
this rock shelter have already been removed by Capitan and Peyrony, 
who have worked there intermittently since 1898. Among their finds 
are to be mentioned several Mousterian skeletons; objects of portable ~ 
art and industrial remains belonging to various epochs. A section 
showing ten horizons has been carefully prepared by Peyrony, but the 
construction of a protecting roof will probably not be undertaken until 
the Government obtains title to the station by right of eminent domain 
and places it on the classified list.t 

Of the prehistoric monuments thus far classified, the so-called 
megalithic monuments outnumber all the others combined ; these include 
dolmens of every description, tumuli, menhirs, cromlechs, and aline- 
ments. A classified monument may consist of a single site, structure, 
or specimen ; or it may consist of a group of the same, depending upon 
circumstances. Of the 490 classified prehistoric monuments, 413 are 
of the megalithic class. The remaining 77 come under the following 
heads: caves, 18; rock shelters, 7; stations without more definite desig- 
nation, 10; camps, 5; fortifications, 4; lake dwellings, 1; sepultures, 
2; polishing stones, 19; stones with cupules, 7 ; sculptured erratic blocks, 
i yaripis a3: 

The 490 classified prehistoric monuments are distributed over 76 
of the 86 departments comprising France. The most favored depart- 
ments are Morbihan and Finistére in Brittany with their wealth of 
megaliths. The next in point of numbers and perhaps first in impor- 
tance, is Dordogne. It will be noted that the Government has not yet 
succeeded in setting aside a single sand, loess, and gravel pit. Plans 





1 Purchased in 1922 for Capitan, who will eventually give it to the Govern- 
ment. 





PREHISTORIC MONUMENTS 463 


for rendering effective any classification of this sort seem to be beset 
by unusual difficulties. 


Denmark.—The enactment of laws in Denmark for the protection 
of prehistoric monuments, and the control and disposition of museum 
collections is due to the wide-spread interest created by the excellence 
of the work done in prehistory for more than a hundred years. The 
best of the megalithic and other prehistoric monuments, including 
kitchen middens, to the number of over four thousand now belong to 
the State, having been either purchased or received as gifts. 

There is a museum system in force since 1880, which closely binds 
the ten or more provincial museums with the National Museum at 
Copenhagen. The provincial museums each receive a small annual 
subsidy from the State; in return for this, they may be called upon 
at any time to relinquish important specimens that may be wanted 
for the national collection at Copenhagen. The Director of the National 
Museum is ex officio advisory director of all the provincial museums 
and visits them annually. The provincial museums are not allowed 
to carry on excavations without a permit from the National Museum 
authorities. | 

Antiquities of gold and silver found in Denmark are treated as a 
class apart. They must become the property of the State, which pays 
the finder a sum equal to their intrinsic value, to which a small bonus 
is added; the object of the bonus is to lessen the temptation to sell to 
a purchaser other than the State, or even to melt down precious relics 
for the mere value of the metal they contain. 


England.—The problem of preserving historic and prehistoric 
monuments in England is left in the hands of the Board of Public 
Works. Much has already been done in the way of setting aside his- 
toric monuments. On the other hand, the scheduling of prehistoric 
sites as ancient monuments has hardly more than begun. The list of 
scheduled prehistoric monuments includes the following: 

(1) The well-known stone circle of Stonehenge (Bronze Age) in 
Wiltshire. 

(2) The Neolithic stone circle of Arbor Low five miles from Bake- 
well in Derbyshire. 

(3) The long barrow known as Wayland’s Smithy in Berkshire. 

(4) The Neolithic flint quarries at Cissbury near Worthing, 
Sussex. 

Exforts are being made to schedule as an ancient monument the 


464 HUMAN ORIGINS 


flint quarries known as Grime’s Graves near Weeting (Norfolk) and 
to leave the care of them to some near-by local society or museum. 
Recent excavations at Grime’s Graves by A. L. Armstrong and others 
reveal an interesting culture sequence. 


Germany.—Each province in Germany has its own rules in regard 
to the preservation of prehistoric monuments. As a rule treasure trove 
belongs to the State rather than to the private owner of the land. In 
Wurttemberg, the Stuttgart Museum and the Urgeschichtliches Forsch- 
ungsinstitut at Tubingen alone have the right to dig on public lands. 
Before digging on private property, one must first secure the permission 
of the owner. 


List OF CLASSIFIED PREHISTORIC MONUMENTS IN FRANCE 


(Corrected to January, 1922) 


AIN: 
Simandre-sur-Suron Menhir: ‘‘ Pierre-Fiche”’ 
Bragnier-Cordon Grotte de la Bonne-Femme 
tS aL ACVre 
Contrevoz Prehistoric camp 
Bagneux Two erratic blocks with cupules at Tous 
Rosset 
Magniere Stone with cupules 
AISNE: 
Berzy-le-Sec Two polishing stones 
Bois-les-Parguy Menhir: “‘le Verziau de Gargantua”’ 
La Bouteille * ‘‘la Haute Bonde”’ 
Haramont . vs ‘‘la Pierre Clouée”’ 
Vic-sur-Atsne Allée couverte: ‘‘le Clos-Bastard”’ 
BassES-ALPES: 
Villard-d’ Ubaye Dolmen 
ALPES-MARITIMES: 
Saint-Cezaire Dolmen de la Graon 
Saint-Vallier de Thiey ‘* — “Castellaras de la Malle” 
ARDECHE: 
Baune Dolmen de la Lauze 
Beaulieu ‘* du Bois des Roches 
Bidon . ‘¢ de Champnerveil 
Bourg St. Anded ‘* des Joyandes 


St. Albans-sous-Sampzon 
St. Remeze ‘¢ de Malbase 


PREHISTORIC MONUMENTS 


ARIEGE: 


Bord-sur-Lez 
Gabre 

Niaux 

Mas @’ Azil 


AUBE: 
Avant-les-Marcilly 


AUDE: 


Villeneuve-Minervots 


Malves 


AVEYRON: 


Buzeins 

La Cavalerie 
Martiel 
Montjaux 
Saint-A ffrique 
Salles-la-Source 


BoOuUCHES-DU-RHONE: 


Fontvieille 


CALVADOS: 


Colombier-sur-Seules 
Condé-sur-If 
Fontenay-le-Marmion 
Jurques 


CANTAL 


Seriers 


Talizat 


CHARENTE: 


Angouléme 
Fontenille 


Gardes 


Dolmen d’Ayer 
ie de Coudére 
Grotte de Niaux 
Dolmen de Seignas 
. ‘* Bedot 


Menhir: ‘‘la Pierre-au-Coq”’ 


Dolmen 
Menhir 


Dolmen 
¢é¢ 


ce 


(a3 


des Tiergues 
du Genevrier 


Grotte-dolmen des Fées de Cordes 
e ae de la Source 
us i ‘* Bounais 


os ‘* — du Forgeron 


~ Remains of dolmen of Contiguardes 


Menhir 

2 'la Pierre cornue”’ 
Tumulus: ‘‘la Butte de la Hoque”’ 
Dolmen: ‘‘ Pierre Dialau”’ 


Grand dolmen: ‘‘la table du Loup” 
Menhir: ‘“‘la Croix grasse”’ 
‘* “la Pierre Plantade” 


6c ce c¢ c¢ 


465 


Polishing stone: ‘“‘le Gros Chail”’ (in garden 


of the Hétel de Ville) 
Dolmen: ‘‘la Grosse Pérotte”’ 
es ‘* Petite Pérotte”’ 
Rock shelter of La Quina 


466 


CHARENTE: 


Luxé 
Le Petit-Lessac 


Le Placard 
Vervant 


CHARENTE-INFERIEURE: 
Ardilléres 


Montguyon 
Saint-Laurent de la Prée 


Périchard 


CHER: 
Gracay 
St. Georges-sur-Moulon 
Villeneuve-sur-Cher 


CoRREZE: 
Argentat 
Aubazine 
Beynat 
Es partignac 
Saint-Cernin-de-l’ Arche 


CORSE: 


Belvedere-Campomoro 
Grossa 

Le Rizzanese 

San Pietro di Tienda 
Sarténe 


COTE D’OR: 
Boufe 
Coulmier-le-Sec 
Genay 
Montigny St. Barthelémy 
Nolay 
La Roche-en-Brénil 
La Rochepot 


Sussey 
Volney 


HUMAN ORIGINS 


Dolmen under tumulus: 
Garde”’ 


“la Motte de la 


Dolmen de la Madeleine (converted into a 


chapel) 
Grotte du Placard 
Dolmen de la Boixe 


Dolmen: ‘‘la Pierre Lévee’’ 
c¢ 66 ée Fouquére’”’ 
{So Folle 
“legs Pierres closes 


as AGG 


Dolmens (two): 
Charrace? 
Camp 


Dolmen: ‘‘la Pierre levée’’ 


Menhir: ‘‘la Pierre 4 la Femme”’ 
Dolmen: ‘‘la Table de la Roche”’ 
Menhir: ‘‘la Grave de Roland”’ 


Cromlech du Puy de Pauliat 
Dolmen: ‘‘la Cabane de la Fée”’ 

A ‘* Maison du Loup”’ 
Menhir de Lapalain 


Menhir de Capo di Luogo 


‘* du Vaccil-Vecchio 
Menhirs (two) 
Dolmen du Monte-Rivinco 
ap} de Fontanaccia 


Tumulus du Cracomet 

Menhir 
“* ~“Grande Borne” 

du Cimietiére 

Dolmen de Champin 

Menhirs (two) 

Dolmen: ‘‘la Pierre qui vire”’ 

Allée couverte de la Chaume 

Menhir de la Petite Pointe 

Dolmen: ‘‘la Pierre brulée”’ 


(as 


de 


PREHISTORIC MONUMENTS 


CoTES-DU-NoRD: 


Begard 
Bourbriac 


Pederuec 
Plédran 

Plesidy 

Pleslin 
Pleumeur-Bodou 
Ploufragan 

Le Quessoy 
Quintin 

Vieux Marché 


CREUSE: 


Blessac 

Champagnat 

La Serre-Bussiére Vieille 
La Souterraine 


DORDOGNE 


Bayac 

Bernifal 

Bouloureix 
Bourdeilles 
Bourniquel et Bayac 
Brantome 

Couze 

Domme 

Les Eyzies de Tayac 


Limeuil 
Marquay 


Micoque? 

Peyzac 

Rampieux 

St. Avit-Lenteur 
St. Aquilin 

St. Léon-sur-V ézére 


Sergeac 


2 Listed in 1922. 


46} 


Menhir de Kerguézennce 
Tumulus and dolmen of Danoué a Dou 
Dolmen de Kerivoie 
Menhir: ‘‘au hameau du Menhir”’ 
Camp de Pérau 
Menhir de Caelonau 
Alinement du Champ des Roches 
Menhir de Saint-Duzec 
Dolmen de la Couette 
‘du Champ Grasset 
Menhir: ‘‘la Roche longue”’ 
Dolmen de la Chapelle des sept-saints 


Dolmen 

Menhir: ‘“‘la Pierre-femme’”’ 
Dolmen 

Menhir de la Gérafie 


Station of la Gravatte (Gravette) 
Cave of Bernifal 
Station of la Tabaterie 
Station of Bernou 
‘*¢  ** Champs-Blancs 
Dolmen: ‘‘la Pierre levée”’ 
Station Couze, near the freight house 
“* and rock shelter of Combe-Granal 
Cavern of Font-de-Gaume 
“*  ** Combarelles 
Abri du Chateau 
«e ** Poisson, at George d’Enfer 
de Laugerie-Haute 
Station of Limeuil 
Cap-Blanc (rock shelter frieze) 
Cave of La Gréze 
Fallen rock shelter 
Rock shelter of Le Moustier (lower one) 
Dolmen: ‘‘Peyre Levade”’ 
Station of Patary 
Dolmen de Peyrebrune 
Station ‘‘Sous-le-Roc”’ 
“e “ala Tuiliére”’ 
‘* “Les Roches de Castel-Merle”’ 


(a3 


468 . HUMAN ORIGINS 


DORDOGNE: 


Teyjat 
Vitrac 


EURE 


Ambenay 
Dampmesnil 
Lande peureuse 
Les Ventes 
Verneusses 


EvuRE-ET-LOIR: 
Bescheére-sur-Vesgre 
Corancez | 
Satnt-A vit 
Trizay-les-Bonneval 
Y meray 


FINISTERE: 
Berzec Cap-Sizun 
Camaret 
Cleden Cap-Sizun 
Commana 
Crozon 
Goulven 
Guelven 
Guerlesquin 
Guiclan 
Kermorvan 
Landunvez 


Le Laz 
Penmarc’h 


Plouarzel 
Plobanalec 
Plouescat 


Ploumogner 
Plounéour-Trez 


Ploivan-Ploudalmezeau 
Plozevet 

St. Pol-de-Léon 

Ile de Sein 


Grotte de la Mairie 
Dolmen 


Dolmen 

Allée couverte 

Menhir: ‘‘la longue Pierre”’ 

Dolmen de |’Hétel Dieux”’ 
‘¢ : “la Grosse Pierre”’ 


Menhir de la Ville-l’Evéque 
Polishing stone: ‘‘ Pinte de St. Martin ” 
Dolmen de Quincampoix 

‘* : “Pierre de Villebon”’ 
Menhir: ‘‘Chantecocq”’ 


Oppidum Gaulois de Castel-Coz 
Alinements 
Oppidum de Castel-Coz 
Allée couverte de Mongau 
Alinement of Ty-ar-C’hure 
Dolmen de Tréguele huer 
Z ‘* Costquer 
Menhir de Kerellou 
Grotte de Roch Toul 
Dolmen 
ed Argenton 
Menhir d’Argenton 


‘< de Kecmez 
r Fa § 


Tumulus sur galerie dolmenique du 


Poulgney 
Menhir de Kervéatoux 


Dolmen de ‘‘Manez Goarum Arfeunteny”’ 


Menhir du Camp-Louir 
Dolmen de Creac’h-ar-Vreux 
Cromlech de Kermorvan 
Menhir de Pontusval 


ce 6c 6¢ 


is ‘“ Kercadioux 


: “les Droits de !Homme”’ 
Dolmen de Boutouiller 
Menhirs (two): ‘‘les Causeurs”’ 


ce 


PREHISTORIC MONUMENTS 469 


GARD 
Aigueze 


Barjac 
Calvisson 
Cam bpestre 
Le Garn 
Lussan 
Nages 


HAUTE-GARONNE: 


Aurignac 
Bagnéres-de-Luchon 


Marsoulas 


GIRONDE: 
Bellefond 
Marcamps 
St. Sulpice de Faleyrens 
Les Salles 


HERAULT: 


Minerve 


Saint-Privat 
Saumont 


ILLE-ET-VILAINE: 
Cuguen 
Dol 
Essé 
M édréac 


Noyal-sous-Bazouges 
Pleugeur 

St. Aubin-du Cormier 
Saint-Suliac 

Tressé 

St. Germain-en-Cogleés 


INDRE: 


Bagneux 


La Chétre-Langlin 


Dolmen: ‘‘ Pie de Monnie”’ 

Cave of Chabot 

Group of three dolmens 

Neolithic sepultures of Conte Perdrix 
Dolmen: ‘‘Peyre de Cabusso Ludo”’ 
Cave of Ouillins 

Menhir: ‘‘la Pierre Plantée”’ 
Prehistoric fortification: ‘‘Les Castels”’ 


Cave of Aurignac 
Alinements 
Cromlech 

Cave of Marsoulas 


Dolmens 

Cavern of Pair-non-Pair 
Menhir de Pierre-fitte 
Dolmen de Puy-Landry 


Dolmen and tumulus of Bois bas 
es de Bruneau 
‘¢ du Belvédére 
‘< de Coste-Rouge 


Menhir: ‘‘la Pierre Longue” 

‘* du Champ Dolent 
Dolmen: ‘‘la Roche aux Fées”’ 
Alinements 
Menhir de Chinot 

‘¢ de Lande Ros 

§* :“la Pierre du Domaine’’ 
Menhirs (five) in the forest of Haute-Seve 
Menhir: ‘‘la Dent de Gargantau”’ 
Dolmen: ‘‘la Maison des Fées”’ 

‘* du Rocher Jacquiaux 


Dolmen: ‘‘la Pierre Couverte de Buc’”’ 
Menhir:._ ‘‘la Pierre levée de Boisy”’ 
Menhirs (two) at Trefoux 

Dolmen de Passe-Bonneau 


HUMAN ORIGINS 


INDRE: 


Ciron 
Hourdoueix-St. Michel 
Montchevrier 


Moulins 


Orsennes 
Parnac 


Saint-Plantaire 


INDRE-ET-LOIRE: 


Auzouer 

Balesmes 

Beaulieu 
Beaumont-la-Rouce 
Draché 

Ferriére-l Arcon 
Ligré 

Mettray 

Paulmy 
Petit-Pressigny 


ISERE: 


Decines 


JURA: 


Fontenu 
Montmirey-la- Ville 


LOIRE-ET-CHER: 


Arcines 

Brevainville 

La Chapelle Vendomoise 
Droue 
Huisseau-en-Beauce 


Nourray 
Novyers 


Soings 
Tripleville 


Dolmen de Senevant 
Cromlech de Senevant 
Dolmen du Bois-Plantaise 
Dolmen 
‘¢ de la Pierre 
Cromlech de la Pierre 
Dolmen de Chardy 
e ‘* Aire aux Martes 
des Gorces 
: “la Pierre a la Marte” 


ce 


6 


Menhir du Chateau de Pierrefitte 
Dolmen: ‘‘Chillon du Feuillet”’ 
Cromlech a la Croix Bonin 
Dolmen: ‘‘la Pierre levée”’ 
Menhir: ‘‘la Pierre percée”’ 
Polishing stone 
Dolmen 
“+ “la Grotte aux ees 
: ‘Pierre chaude”’ 
Polishing stone 


6¢ 


Menhir 


Palafittes de Chalain 
Camp préhistorique du Mont-Guerin 


Menhir d’Huchigny 
Dolmen: ‘‘les Grosses Pierres”’ 
‘* _:“la Pierre levée”’ 
Polishing stone: ‘‘La Pierre cochée”’ 
Menhirs (two) 
Dolmen 
Polishing stone 
Dolmen under tumulus 
Polishing stone 
Menhir: ‘‘La Pierre frite de Grandmont”’ 
Tumulus 
Menhir 
Dolmen 
Polishing stone 


PREHISTORIC MONUMENTS 


LOIRE: 


Villerest 
Luricq 


HAUvUTE-LOIRE: 


Chomelix 
Langeac 
Saint-Eble 
Vieille-Brioude 


LOIRE-INFERIEURE: 


Le Crotsic 
Donges 
Pont-Chateau 
Pornic 
Saint-N azaire 


Ste.-Pazanne 


LOIRET: 
Chevannes 
Epieds 
Erceville 

LOT: 

Assier 
Gramat 
Limogne 
Livernon 

Lot-ET-GARONNE: 


Fargues 


LOZERE: 
Auxillac 
Balsieges 
Pelouse 
Marvejols 

MAINE-ET-LOIR: 


Bagneux 


Charcé 


Coron 
Mire 


A prophyry wall: “Chateau Brulé” 
Dolmen de Roche Cubertville 


Menhir: ‘La Pierre plantée”’ 
Dolmen (destroyed) 
“ =tlas-“Tombas de las Fadas”’ 
a! (destroyed) 


Menhir-signal 
‘¢ de la Vacherie 
é¢ 
Dolmen under tumulus 
er trilatie) 
‘“ ~~ under tumulus of Dissignac 
‘* : “la Salle des Fées”’ 


Menhir 
Dolmen 
‘< : “la Pierre clouée”’ 


Dolmen 


Dolmen de Chardonnet 
ion Peet ante ece 


6é 


6¢ 


Grand dolmen 

Dolmen: ‘‘la Petite Pierre couverte’’ 
Menhir: ‘‘la Pierre longue”’ 

Dolmen 

Cromlech 

Menhir: ‘‘la Pierre aux Hommes’”’ 
Dolmen: ‘‘la Maison des Fées”’ 


: “Te Fuseau de la Madeleine’”’ 


471 


472 HUMAN ORIGINS 


MAINE-ET-LOIR: 


Montreuil-Bellay Menhir: ‘‘la Pierre de Cessay”’ 
Pontigne Dolmen: ‘‘ Pierre couverte”’ 
St. Germain-sur-M aine Menhir: ‘‘la Haute-Borne”’ 
St. Hilaire St. Florent Dolmen du Bois Briand 
Soucelles ‘* —:“la Pierre Cesée”’ 
MANCHE: 
Bretteville Dolmen 
Flamanville ‘* (destroyed) 
Maupertus Menhir 
Les Moitiers d’ Allonue Allée couverte 
Rocheville Allée couverte de la Petite Roche 
Vauville fe ie : “la Pierre Pouquelée”’ 
MARNE: 
Barbonne Fayel Dolmen under tumulus 
Congy Menhir de l’etaing de Cheuevry 
Cramant et Oisy £3 
Fontaine Denic Dolmen de Nuisy: ‘‘les Pierres de Ste. 
Genevieve”’ 
HAvUTE-MARNE: 
Fontaine-sur-M arne Menhir: ‘‘la Haute-Borne”’ 
Vitry-les-Nogent Dolmen au Bois de Lardigny: ‘‘la Pierre 
Alot” 
MAYENNE: 
Bazangers Menhir de la Hune 
Ernée Dolmen de la Couterie 
Montenay Polishing stone: ‘‘la Pierre St. Guillaume” 
LesPas Menhir de St. Civiére 
Sainte-Suzanne Dolmen des Erves 
Montaudin Menhir de la Broussardiére 
MERTHE-ET-MOSELLE: 
Bois l’ Evéque (Toul) Dolmen 
Pierre-la-Treiche Caves: ‘‘Trous de Ste. Reine’”’ 
Pont-a-Mousson Menhir: ‘‘la Pierre au Jo”’ 
MEUSE: 
St. Mihiel Menhir: ‘“‘la Dame Schonne”’ 
MoRBIHAN: 
Arzon Dolmen du Petit Mont 
Baden-Arzon Double Cromlech d’Er Lanic 
VIle aux Moines Cromlech 


Gavr’ Inis Baden Tumulus with dolmen 


PREHISTORIC MONUMENTS 473 


MorBIHAN. 


Belz 
Carnac 


Contivy 
Erdeven 


Erdeven 
Locmariaquer 


Locoal Meudon 


Plougoumelen 
Plouharnel 


Dolmen a galerie de Kerlueen 
Alinements of Ménec 
Ss ‘* Kermario 
Dolmen of Kermario 
Alinements of Kerlescan 
Tumulus-dolmen of Mont-Saint-Michel 
Tumulus with menhir of Moustoir Carnac 
Dolmens of Keriaval 
Tumulus with three dolmens of Massé- 
Kerioned 
Menhir of Kerluhir 
6c ¢¢ Kergo 
Dolmen de la Madeleine 
he du Roch Feutet 
Menhir du Bourg de Carnac 
“de Kerlagate 
Dolmen de Klud-er-Yer 
a ‘* Kerifol 
Tumulus de Crucuny 
Menhir de Kerderf 
Quadrilateral of Manio 
Menhir du Manio 
Sepulture of the Iron Age 
Alinements 
Dolmen du Mané Gro’h 
Three dolmens of Mane Bras 
Dolmen under tumulus of Mané-er-Hoek 
ee is te ‘* Mané Lud 
Grand menhir 
Dolmen des Pierres plates 
ae de Kerveresse 
) = SoTable des Marchands”’ 
os of Mané Rutual 
Allée couverte coudée de Mané-er-hoh 
Grand dolmen with gallery and mural 
engravings 
Lateral of Mané-er-hoh 
Dolmen with lateral chambers de Lacquelos 
Dolmen du Rocher 
eS under tumulus of Rondosec 
Alinement du Vieux Moulin 
Téte des Alinements de Ste.-Barbe 
Dolmen de Crucuno 
Cromlech de Crucuno 


474 HUMAN ORIGINS 


MorBIHAN: 


Ouiberon 


St. Pierre Quiberon 


La Trinité-sur-Mer 


Norp: 


Cambrai 

l’ Ecluse 

Hamel 
Sars-Poteries 
Sobre-le-Chateau 


OISE: 
Trye-le-Chéteau 
Villers-Saint-Sepulcre 


ORNE: 


Crameuil 
Joué du Bots 


Silly-en-Gouffern 


PAS-DE-CALAIS: 


Tresnicourt 
Mont St. Eloy 
Sailly-en-Ostremont 


Puy-DE-DOME: 
Cham peix 
Cournols 
Davayat 


St. Germain-prés-Herment 


Saint-Gervazy 
Saint-Nectaire 


Dolmen de Kergavat 
es ‘* Runesto 
‘* Gohquer 
du Mane-Runmeur 
Menhir du Mané-Meur 
Dolmen du Couquet 
Roche du Roc Priol 
Cromlech de St. Pierre 
Tumulus a coffret de Mané-Decker-Noz 
Dolmen de Roch-eun-Aud 
* du Port-Blanc 
Alinements of the Petit-Ménec 
Dolmen under tumulus of Kermarquer 


ce¢ 


cé 


Two menhirs: ‘‘ Pierres jumelles”’ 
Menhir: ‘‘la Pierre au Diable”’ 
Dolmen 

Menhir: ‘‘la Pierre de Dessus bise’”’ 
Two menhirs: ‘‘les Pierres Martines”’ 


Dolmen: ‘‘la Pierre trouée’’ 
ss “‘la Roche aux Fées”’ 


Menhir: ‘‘l’Affiloir de Gargantua” 
Dolmen: ‘‘La Pierre aux Loups”’ 

oe de la Grandiére 
Menhir des Outres 

‘*. : “la Pierre levée”’ 


Dolmen: ‘‘la Table des Fées”’ 
Two menhirs: ‘‘les Pierres jumelles”’ 
Cromlech des sept Bonnettes 


Dolmen ‘‘la Pierre fichade”’ 
oe de la Grotte 
Menhir P 
Dolmen de Farges bi 
‘* :“P?Usteau de Loup” 
Dolmens 


PREHISTORIC MONUMENTS 


BASSES-PYRENEES: 


Bilheres 
Buzy 


HAvUTES-PYRENEES: 


Aventignan 
Bartrés 
Bize-Nistos 


PYRENEES-ORIENTALES: 


Arles-sur-Tech 
Banyuls-sur-Mer 


HAvUTE-SAONE: 


Traves 
Aroz 


SAONE-ET-LOIRE: 
Broye 
va Chapelle-sur-Brancion 
Dezize 
Rully 
Saint-Pantaleon 


SARTHE: 
Duneau 


Le Mans 


SAVOIE: 
Lans-le-Villcr2 


Macot 


HAUTE-SAVOIE: 
Les Allinges 
Authy 
Reignier 
Saint-Cergnes 
Sciez 


SEINE: 
Clamart 


475 


Cromlech 
Dolmen: ‘‘le Calhau de Teberno”’ 


Cave of Gargas 
Dolmen 
Dolmen 


Dolmen 
cé 


Menhir percé 
‘* —: “Pierre percée”’ 


Menhir 
<<: ** Pierre levée”’ 
Dolmens of Mont-de-Senne 
Camp de César, or d’Agneux 
Three menhirs of the Alinements of the 


“Champ de la Justice’”’ 


Menhir: ‘‘la Pierre fiche”’ 

Dolmen: ‘‘la Pierre couverte”’ 

Menhir by the cathedral: “Pierre de St. 
Julien” 


Pierre 4 cupules: ‘‘ Pierre de Chantlouve”’ 
ee pee shocker aux Pieds 


Dolmen de Nantfrozin 


Sculptured erratic block 
Pierre a cupules: ‘‘Pierre du Sacrifice” 
Dolmen: “la Pierre aux Fées”’ 

ge “la Cave, or Chambre aux Fées”’ 
Pierre a cupules 


Menhir: ‘‘la Pierre aux Moines”’ 


HUMAN ORIGINS 


SEINE-ET-MARNE: 


Beauthiel 


Diant 
Dormelles 
Ecuelles 
Faignes 
Nanteau 

Paley 

Rumont 

Soup pes 
Thoury-Ferrotte 


SEINE-ET-OISE: 


Anvers-St. Georges 
Boussy-Saint-Antoine 
Bruony 

La Briche 

Cergy 

Epone 
Montreuil-sur-E pte 
Morigny-Champigny 
St. Leger-en-Y velines 
St. Martin-du-Tertre 
Vigneux 

Villeconin 
Villeneuve-le- Roi 


DEUX-SEVRES: 


Bougon 
Celles-sur-Belle 
Limalouges 

St. Aubin-de-Bobigné 


SOMME: 


Assevillers 
Doingt 
Eppeville 


TARN: 


La Bastide-Rouatroux 
Lacaune 
Roussayrolles 


Sainte-Cecile-du-Cayreu 


Menhir: ‘‘la Pierre-fitte, or Pignon de 
St.-Aubierge”’ 

Menhir: ‘“‘la Pierre aux bouteaux”’ 
gs ‘‘la Roche plantee”’ 

‘‘la Pierre droite”’ 

Polishing stone 

Menhir: ‘‘la Pierre clouée, or Pierrefitte”’ 
SS “la Pierre qui fuit”’ 

Dolmen: ‘‘la Pierre l’Ormeille”’ 

Group of polishing stones 

‘la Pierre Cornoy”’ 


ims 


Dolmen 

Menhir de Pierrefitte 

Menhirs on the Thalma property 
Polishing stone 

Menhir: ‘“‘la Pierre fouret,’’ at Genay 
Dolmens 

Dolmen de Coppieres 

Polishing stone 

La Pierre Ardrone 

Dolmen: ‘‘la Pierre Turquaise”’ 
Menhir: ‘‘la Pierre A Mousseaux”’ 
Polishing stone of the Bois de la Charmille 
Menhir: ‘‘la Pierre-fitte”’ 


Dolmen: ‘‘la Pierre-levée”’ 
Three menhirs 
Dolmen: ‘‘la Pierre-pese”’ 


Roches gravées de la Vaulx 


Polishing stone 
Menhir: ‘‘la Pierre de Gargantua”’ 
ys ‘‘la Pierre qui pousse”’ 


Dolmen 
Menhir 
Dolmen 
oe du Verdier 


PREHISTORIC MONUMENTS 477 


TARN-ET-GARONNE: 
Sept-Fonds 


VAR: 
Cabasse 
Dragnignau 
Roquebrune 
St. Raphael 


VAUCLUSE: 
Menerbes 


VENDEE: 
Aorillé 
Croix de Vie 
Le Bernard 
Ile d’ Yeu 


Noirmoutiers 
Olonne 


VIENNE: 
Aslonne 


Availles-Limousine 
Bournand 

Lathus 

Naintré 
Neuville-du-Poitou 
Poitiers 

St. Pierre-les-Eglises 


HAUTE-VIENNE: 
Cieux 
St. Laurent-sur-Gorre 
St. Leger-Magnazeise 


VOSGES: 


Escles 
Remiremont 


YONNE: 
Aillant-sur-T holon 
Blagny-sur-Carreau 
Courgenay 


Dolmen 


Menhir de Champdumy 
Dolmen 
‘f de la Gaillard-sur-Mer 
Menhir 4 Aire-Peyrone: ‘‘ Pierre levée”’ 


Dolmen de la Pichonne 


Nine menhirs and one ‘‘ Pierre branlante’’ 

Menhir de la Tourelle (in the cemetery) 

Dolmen de la Frébouchére 

Three dolmens 

Menhir 

Submerged ‘‘ Dolmen de la Table”’ 

Ruined dolmen de ‘‘l’Herbaudiére’”’ 

Menhir de la Couche verte, in the forest of 
the domain of Retz 


Dolmen at Lavaire 

Cromlech at Lavaire 

Menhir: ‘‘la Pierre-fade”’ 

Allée couverte: ‘‘la Pierrefolle”’ 

Dolmen near Marchain 

Menhir du Vieux Poitiers 

Dolmen: ‘“‘la Pierre-levée-de-Bellefoye”’ 
oF “la Pierre levée”’ 

Cave of Gioux 


Menhir near Ceinturat 
Dolmen: ‘‘la Pierre levée”’ 
Polishing stone: ‘‘Le Peulvau de Scjotte”’ 


Menhir 
Two menhirs: ‘‘ Pierres-fittes’’ 


Menhir limite: ‘‘la Pierre-fide ” 

Dolmen 

Polishing stone of the Bois du Fauconnier 
at the place called ‘‘Les Roches” 


478 HUMAN ORIGINS 


YONNE: 
Egriselles-le-Bocage 
St. Maurice-aux-Riches 
Hommes 
Les Sieges 
Sognes 
Vaumort 







Menhir: ‘‘la Pierre Aigue”’ 


Dolmen de Lancy — ‘So ae 
Menhir: ‘‘la Pierre A colon” ee 
‘du “Pas Diet} 
Menhir “‘la Pierre enlevée” or “‘la 
aux-Sorciers ”’ a 


INDEX 


(Items marked * indicate illustration) 


Roman numerals 


preceding page numbers 


refer to Volumes I and II, respectively. 


Asterisks denote illustrations. 


Aargau, TL, 232. 

Aarhus, II, 2o1. 

Abamia (Asturias), II, 102. 

Abbeville, I, 18, 46, 63, 64, 66, 81, 108, 106, 
FIL, ALY: 

Abbo, I, 392, 393, 394. 

Abbott, I, 97, 106. 

Abies alba, II, 157; pectinata, I, 53. 

Abraham, II, 50. 

Abri du Chateau, I, 260, II, 458, 461. 

Abrich Romani (Barcelona), II, 406. 

Abydos, I, 209, II, 97. 

Abyssinia, II, 152. 

“Acer, tl is7 

Achen stage, I, 37, 49, 60, 61, 84. 

Achenheim, I, 45, 47, 142 

Acheulian Epoch, I, 27, 84, 104, 116-122, 
348, II, 52; fauna of, I, 118, 434; indus- 
try of, I, 47, 64, 80, 81, 83, L10, 433; man 
of, 1, 63 

Adapis, I, 299, 302. 

Adlun (Phoenicia), II, gor. 

Adour basin, I, 126. 

Adriatic, II, 248, 279. 

Adzes, II, 13, 27, 37, 199. 

/Egean region, II, 220. 

Zisculus hippocastanum, I, 53. 

Afontova Mt. (Yenesei), II, 404. 

Africa, I, 52, 55,” 56, 145, 195, 294, 299, 
397, 309, 311, 312, 422, 423, 436, 439; 
II, 16, 30, 69, 79, 83, 121, 151, 152, 172, 
181; Acheulian in, I, 127, 128; Aurignacian 
im, i,0t91; Chellean in, 1, 127, 128; cul- 
tures in, I, 123, Magdalenian in, I, 201; 
Mousterian in, I, 151; Paleolithic in, I, 
158-159. 

African strain, in Aurignacian man, I, 407. 

African type of man, II, 297. 

Aftonian Interglacial Epoch, I, 53, 61. 

Agassiz, Louis, I, 26. 

master. 1bs..202, 210, 211," 216,.222, 227, 
235, 248, 253, 272, 284. 

Age of Copper, II, 50, 120, 122, 177, 183; 
of metals, II, 49, 67, 73, 98, 133, 138, 145. 

Agordo, II, 177. 

Agriculture, I, 11, 42, 75, II, 35, 44, 46, 59, 
69, 157-158, 213; implements of, II, 265. 

Aguas de Novales, Las (Santander), II, 446. 

Aguilar de Anguita, II, 235, 236, 287. 

Aichbihl, II, 73. 

Aiguéze, II, 422. 

Ain (France), II, 209. 

Aisne River, I, 64. 


Albarracin (Teruel), II, 446. 

Alces latifrons, I, 347; machlis, II, 15, 57; 
palmatus, I, 142. 

Aldendorf (Styria), II, 232. 

Alder; £39,709; Il, 157. 

Alderbury gravels, I, 96. 

Aldershot, I, 95. 

Alesia (Cote d’Or), II, 235, 251, 252. 

Algeria, I, 171, 434, II, 121; Acheulian in, 
I, 127; Chellean in, I, 127; Mousterian in, 
I, 151; cultures of Africa represented by, 
TEER 

Alinements, II, 110,* 111, 113, 123-129. 

Allach (Bavaria), II, 279. 

Allée couverte, see Passage grave. 

Allier, II, 202. 

Allium cepa, II, 157. 

Alloys, II, 177. 

Alluvial deposits, I, 41,* 44, 47, 64, 65, 66. 

Alnus, II, 157. 

Alpaca, domesticated, II, 152. 

Alpera (Albacete), II, 446. 

Alphabetiform signs, in Paleolithic art, I, 
286. 

Alpine Provinces, II, 286. 

Alps, I, 15, 35*, 49, 52, 54, 56. 57, 58, 59, 62, 
771s G7 pidl ss, 55350 243: 

Alsace, I, 45; II, 207. 

Alsius, Don Pedro, I, 357. 

Altai Mts., II, 180. 

mltamira 1.235524). Sts ore ora. eS ioer 
217 a e21G,) 22158240 202,227, OOm lL AO, 
464. 

Altheim pottery, II, 8o. 

Alzey, II, 108. 

Amber, II, 28, 36, 39, 95, 98, 105, 159, 201, 
202, 2065, 200—212, 6222) 248,253, 272, 277, 
270. 

Ameghino, I, 302. 

America ull. 26, 835000, 15%. 

Amethyst, II, 95. 

Amfreville (Eure), II, 256, 257.* 

Amiens (Somme), I, 16, 45, 46, 66, 82,* 
II, 327-329. 

Ammonite (Charente), II, 329, 422. 

Amorites, ITI, 51. 

Amphitheater, Roman, II, 58. 

Amphorae, II, 252. 

Amphorette-shaped pottery, II, 88. 

Amulet axes, II, 277. 

Amulet’, II, 48, 72, 97, 107, 159, 161, 162,” 
231, 250, 260, 275, 277. 

Amurru, chronology of, II, 50. 


479 


480 


Anaptomorphus, I, 299, 304; homunculus, I, 
301. 

Anatomy, I, 430. 

Ancona, II, 274, 279. 

Ancylus fluviatilis, I, 70. 

Ancylus Lake, I, 70, 71; 
Time, 1,.70-7%, 72,73: 74- 

Andalusia, II, 7, 295. 

Andelfingen, II, 275.* 

Andernach (Rhine), I, 48, 279, 280,* II, 
384, 443. 

Andirons, II, 243, 264. 

Andromeda polyfolia, I, 53. 

Anetyalls e236; 

Angermanalven Valley, I, 68. 

Angouléme (Charente), II, 58, 5o. 

Animals, domestication of, I, 75, II, 22, 35, 
As, 47; 133) 140, 151-154 38 in Paleolithic 
art, I, 267-285. 

Anjou, 11,7 65. 

Ankle bone, changes in position of, I, 376.* 

Anklets, iS 202,232, 5c4 7 2o4. 

Annecy, Lake, II, 188. 

Antelias (Phoenicia), II, gor. 

Antelope, I, 152, 174, 269, 271, 422; Saiga, I, 
194, 278, 438. 

Antequera (Malaga), II, 121. 

IADEC VS) ElGa ek 1 mOOsm 7 Oe As 

Anthony, I, 335, 365. 

Anthropodus, I, 299. 

Anthropoids, I, 294, 307. 

Anthropomorphic figures, I, 271. 

Anthropomorphs, I, 309. 

Anthropopithecus, see Troglodytes, 

Anthropops perfectus, I, 302. 

Antimony, II, 177. 

Antlers, perforated, I, 174. 

Anvil stones, I, ro1, 157, II, 66. 

Anvils, II, 262. 

Apennines, J, 18. 

Apes, I, 300, 302, 304, 305, 308, 309, 353. 

Apisys Lieets3: 

Appenzell cavern, I, 76. 

Appless Liga rs4.mnses) Crab.pel lens Os 

Apremont (Haute-Saodne), II, 236. 

Apus glacialis, I, 57. 

Aramo, Il; 59. 

Aranzadiaen iso: 

Arbor Low, II, 128, 129, 463. 

Arboreal life, I, 2, 297, 298. 

Arceliny Lyor72) 1373 a7 OmeGo: 

Arceuil (Seine-et-Oise), I, 118. 

Archeolemur, I, 299. 

Archers’ cuffs, II, 195. 

Architecture, II, 213; naval, II, 147. 

Arco; Ei Gadiz)e bine aare 

Arcobtica, 11s %236,6287; 

Arctic: fox 71,52) 56>) harer 410; 3Period: 
I, 74. 

Arctomys marmotta, I, 143, 1094. 

Arcy-sur-Cure (Yonne), I, 285, 405, 438; II, 
330-331, 422; man of, I, 354. 

Ardales, II, 447. 

Ardéche, II, 114 

Ardennes, I, 64, IT, 65. 

Argyllshire, II, 8. 

Aridity: 7, 1s0; 

Aritege, Il; 139," 1280. 

Aristotle, Il, 182, 200, 

Arizona, I; 192, 11; s76, 


Stage, II, 11; 


INDEX 


Arkansas, mining in, II, 61. 

Arlay (Jura), II, 422. 

Armenia, II, 178. 

Armor, II, -195—197. 

Armstrong, A. L., Il, 56, 464; 

Arnoaldi Epoch, II, 230. 

Arona, II, 188. 

Arrowheads, II, 9, 23, 90, 3065, 220,0aee 
195, 222, 223, 235; prototype Of, 08, e2aa 

Arrowpoints, II, 27, 36, 39, 186. 

Arrows, II, 35, 139, 254, 255. 

Arsenic, Ll 1776 

Art, II, 21; and religion, II, 169-174, 213- 
222; color in, I, 216,427, 216." 2s2seeos 
293, II, 46, 94, 156, 273, 437; Cro-Magnon, 
I, 435; first, 1, 22; La Tene; Ii s27ceere. 
Magdalenian, I, 435; mural, I, 22,* 24,* 
213-218, 249, 437, II, 138; objects, I, 154; 
Paleolithic, I, 22;* 23,*9 24%" 27, 207-2035 
436-439; varietal, I, 215, 233; portable, I, 
213, 249, 292; Quaternary, I, 155; station- 
ary, I, 213, 249, 292; Stone Age, I, 437, 
440; textile, II, 247. 

Arthel (Niévre), II, 224. 

Arthritis, I, 350. 

Artifacts, I, 40, 88, 99, 101, 102, 131, 140, 
350, 361, 436, Lee zea 

AATtiSts, sl emer see 

Arudy (Basses-Pyrénées), I, 287,* II, 331, 
422. 

Arvicola amphibius, I, 48, 143, 194; nivalis, 
I, 194; ratticeps, I, 194; terrestris, I, 194. 

Ash,° I} 176,- Laas et ae 

Ash Common, I, 95. 

Ashdod, II, 49. 

Asia, I, 52, 145, 299, 309, 311, gi2pmaame 
436, II, 16, 30, 79, 121, 272, 37 7geee 
181, 297; Acheulian in, I, 128; Aurigna- 
cian in, I, 171; Chellean’ in, J, i128-senr 
tures of, I, 123; Magdalenian in, I, 207; 
Mousterian in, I, 152. 


Asia Minor, II, 89, 180; Acheulian in, I, 
128; Chellean in, I, 128; Mousterian in, 
Leer sas 


Ass, I, 239, 268; domesticated, II, 152. 

Assyrians, II, 40; 51, 140, 181, 182,00se 
228,250: 

Astral symbols, II, 277. 

Atapuerca, La (Burgos), II, 447. 

Athens, II, 228. 

Atlantic Ocean, II, 98; Period, I, 72, 74. 

Aubert, man of, I, 368. 

Audi blades, I, 161,* 165, 166*; cultures, I, 
158; rock shelter, I, 161. 

Auk, great, II, 8. 

Aurensan (Hautes-Pyrénées), I, 405, II, 
331, 422. 

Aurignac (Haute-Garonne), I, 23, 159, 160,* 
geass 

Aurignacian Epoch, I, 154, 156, 159-171, 174, 
209, 211, 214, 219, 254, 268, 287, 395, 
412, 420, 434, 439, II, 7, 52, 60, (738) 
292; culture of, I, 166-171, 259; divisions 
of, I, 1613; man’ in, I, 27; 48; 58, Ose 
145, 160, 169, 174, 210, 312, 379-399, 4073 
type station of, I, 159-160. 

Aurillac, I, 87. 

Auriol, II, 267. 


- Australia, I, 311, 416; I], 142, f72;007ee 





INDEX 


Australians, I, 102, 192, 311, 312, 375,* II 
72 

Austria, I, 38, 142, 145, 265, II, 59, 67, 91, 
Die wee lOvne2OQ, (231-232) 242, 286, 
296; Aurignacian in, I, 166, 167; Magda- 
lenian in I, 196, 202, 204; Mousterian in, 
I, 146; Paleolithic in, II, 302-303, 419-420. 

Autendorf (Lower Austria), II, 302. 

Automobile, II, 133. 

Autun Museum, II, 63. 

Auvernier, II, 69, 71, 72; 
107, 2495, 30%. 

Avebury, II, 124-125, 128. 

Aveline’s Hole (Somerset), II, 315. 

Avena sativa, II, 157. 

Aveny (Eure), II, 100. 

Paveyrod, 11,653, G9, 99, 100, 114, 221. 

Avre, I, 63. 

riwis; 1, 103,’ Il, 3183, 
Magdalenian, I, 187.* 

Mxes,~ ty) 20, 11,) 37, 47, 48, 58, 66, 104, 
Toy eis Loo mLOO, = TOT. 192, 198-100; 
208, 200, 221, 222, 260; amber, II, 159; 
amet tines 7) bone, Il, 12*; bronze, 
Il, 75> t64,~ 185,* 219, 223; Copper, i 
176, 2105 cult of, Il, 277; deerhorn, II, 13; 
end-socket, L275 fat. [, 27, Il; 183, 185; 
HAE polcden aos p28" se fint, 1) 73, LL, 
rj atteds Ll 139; jade, Il, 118, 110; 
Neolithic, I, 414; perforated, II, 38, 45; 
plain-border, I, 27, II, 185; pointed and 
flat-poled, epoch of, II, 23; pointed-poled, 
bee7si polished, II, 27, 47, 57,.98; I1, 91, 
O7-er20.et24.e223) ot. Acheul, I, rros-sculp- 
fatesor, Ll. 100, Tom, 102, 103"; shaft- 
BG ions co staghorn, I], 12*; stone, II, 
23, 69, 70,” 87, 91, 97, 120, 124, 223, 269, 
270*; thick-poled, I, 75, II, 23, 37*; votive, 
II, 220*; winged, I, 27; with sockets, II, 
184; with transverse ridges, I, 27; with 
winged poles, II, 184. 

mAxismdéer. sly 314: 

Aylesford, I, 93, II, 288. 

Aymard, I, 410. 

Azilian Epoch, I, 27, 84,°II, 7, 217, #91, 294; 
eniture of, 11, 16-19; man of, I, 246, 266, 
II, 3, 4-9, 57, 60, 72, 142, 291, 294. 

Azilian-Tardenoisian man, II, 292-294. 


, 


ES1,, ekO7,) 102, 


262; flint, IT, 15; 


Bab-el-Mandeb, II, 148. 

Baboons, I, 300. 

Babylenia, chronology of, I, 8, II, 50-51. 

Babylonians, II, 49, 256. 

Baéa, II, | 262. 

Bacon Hole (South Wales), II, 316, 421. 

Badegols (Dordogne), see Badegoule. 

Badegoule (Dordogne), I, 185, II, 332; man 
of, I, 399. 

Baden, II, 236, 248. 

Badger, I, 272, 438, II, 60, 97. 

Bachler, I, 138. 

Bagford, I, 18. 

Bagneux (Maine-et-Loire), II, 119. 

Bagshot, I, 95. 

Bailleau, I, 146. 

Baillon, I, 64. 

Batances, Li, 273. 

Balanidae, I, 70. 

Balla (Bikk Mts.), II, 393. 

Ballet, I; 147. 


481 


Baltic, I, 52, 56, 69, 70, 71, 72, 74, II, 98, 
150, 211, 0:248. 

Balutie, La (Dordogne), II, 332. 

Balzola (Vizcaya), II, 407. 

Banda, II, 16. 

Bandkeramik, II, 62, 86, 80. 

Bank vole, II, 60. 

Bafiolas, man of, I, 356-3509. 

Baousso-Roussé, I, 385. 

Baoussé da Torre, cave of, I, 394. 

Baratschwili (Caucasus), II, 403. 

Barbs, II, 13; harpoons, I, 436. 

Barbuise (Aube), II, 223. 

Bardon, Abbé, I, 360. 

Barley, (11,35, 46,0154, 155. 

Barma Grande (Liguria), I, 211,* 256, 263,* 
282, 392, II, 444. 

Barnfield pit, I, 109. 

Barranco de Valltorta, II, 447. 

Barrows, II, 30, 33, 287-288, 2096. 

Bars, iron, II, 181; silver, I, 180. 

Barter complex, II, 133. 

Bas Meudon (Seine), II, 58. 

Basins, bronze, I, 231,* 235. 

Basketry, II, 75, 92. 

Baskets, willow, II, 55. 

Basle, I, 47, 64. 

Basques, II, 150. 

Bateni (Yenesei), II, 404. 

Batie (Lot), II, 332, 423. 
Batons, I, 163, 164, 165, 180, 191 
PALIT eI70 6. 70, 172, 21 7% 

Battle-ax, II, 36. 

Batuecas, Las (Salamanca), II, 447. 

Batuts;, Les, Il; 333. 

Baudouin, I, 209. 

Bareellit ile 5.1. 

Bavatidye- Ly sigc~ il, °7;420%;,..232, 1. 230, - 240; 
Pst rns ilo WeXoe ys 

Bay-Bonnet (Liége), II, 303, 306. 

de Baye, Baron, II, 104, 105, 294. 

Bayer, Josef, I, 38, 48, 399. 

Beaches, raised, I, 57, 64, 75. 

Beachy Head, I, 94, 96, 97, 327. 

Beads ell 2204 =1107mutlo. = 120,mucOosmarates 
i TOG Eo Ooms TOM means eyo moe 2 eee Oe 
235, 248, 253, 272, 284; amethyst, II, 95; 
bones. e282, ell os.s222).) bronze. Ll,e1ss) 
202 g224,e2ate cormenany lie once coral. 
Prost Sa efits Liemor er ass alan 70 se ie 
95, 98, 202, 205, 248, 253, 279, 284, 288; 
cold Vl Atr20,80S5,.204-a227 On wl eno. 
227 Sane 1VOry. le GOs, Ll, 235 quartz. Le, 
95; serpentine, II, 95; shell, I, 396, II, 95, 
222; steatite, II, 222; tufa, II, 223 tur- 
quoise, II, 105, 185, 202. 

Beakers, II, 206.* 

Beans, II, 157, 158. 

Heats) 1,530, 12557, 1705239; - 242,811, 253 
brown, I, 419; cave, see Cave bear; grizzly, 
II, 60. 

Beaumont-Montferrand highway, I, 383. 

Beauregard (Seine-et-Marne), II, 333. 

Beavers. sos 3 e320, LL 14, 1255 00,007%0 

Beckersloh (Bavaria), II, 246. 

Bedeilhac (Ariége), I, 262, ITI, 333, 423. 

Beech, I, 39, Il, 73, 157. 

Beech nut, II, 156, 157. 

Beef, II, 151, 281. 

Bees, II, 154. 


5) 202; 4025 


482 


Beetles, I, 285. 

Begouen, Count, I, 237, 238, 241, 244, 247,* 
284, II, 139,* 459. 

Beine (Marne), II, 268.* 

Beit Jibrin, II, 49. 

Beja, 11, 222: 

Belgium, I, 18, 56, 65, 73, 91, 100, 142, 145, 
159, 164, 265, 282, 285, 354, 412, 434, 
436, 438, II, 46, 53, 59, 61, 65, 105, 106, 
119; 121, 4238," 189,.16 245,286, "32943 

Acheulian in, I, 124; Aurignacian in, I, 
166, 167; caves of, I, 143; Chellean in, 
I, 124; cultures of Europe represented by, 
I, 123; Magdalenian in, I, 196, 201, 203, 
204; Mousterian in, I, 146, 152; Neolithic 
of, II, 47; Paleolithic in, II, 303-312, 420; 
Pre-Chellean in, I, 106; transitional cul- 
tures in, II, 17. 

Belgrand, I, 414. 

Belgrandia marginata, I, 81, 118, 434. 

Belle-Assise, Estate of, I, 101. 

Belle-Remise, IJ, 246. 

Bellet, II, 423. 

Bellevue (Aveyron), II, 58. 

Bellon (Cher), II, 333. 

Bellows tubes, II, 193. 

Bellows, use of, in pottery, II, 83. 

Bells, II, 196.* 

Bellucci, I, 18, 170. 

Belts, II, 75, 191, 193, 217, 247, 248, 260, 
Pia lyaevcey Wh, Bek eke, Ce. obia. abl. 
chain, LI, 2025 272:) cloth, [i s277s leather, 
II, 200, 247, 248, 271; shell, I, 386; woven, 
Li-e20o0.8zore 

Benacci I Epoch, II, 229. 

Benacci II Epoch, II, 230. 

Bengal, II, 178. 

Bergamo, Italy, I, 53. 

Bergéres-les-Vertus (Marne), II, 277. 

Bergougnoux, I, 283. 

Berkshire, I, 94, Il, 72. 

Berlin, I, 53; Museum fir Volkerkunde, I, 
360. 

Bernardini, tomb of, II, 229. 

Bernburg pottery, II, 8o. 

Berne, II, 236, 242; Museum, II, 72, 251. 

Bernifal (Dordogne), I, 291, II, 423. 

Berries, II, 46. 

Berru (Marne), II, 79, 257. 

Berthoumeyrou, I, 380. 

Bertin, I, 209. 

Bertonne (Gironde), II, 333. 

Bertrand, E., I, 413. 

Bevaix, Li; 70, 72, 301. 

Beyrouth, II, 48. 

Beyssac (Dordogne), I, 262, II, 423. 

Bianchette, II, 283.* 

Bicknell Cx lie zzo: 

Bienne, lake of, Il, 69;* 72, 143, 187, 188; 
263*; Museum, II, 143, 251. 

Billingen, I, 74. 

Binche, I, 106. 

Birch, I; 39, ‘70, 116, 11,9733 dwarf, “1; 357. 

Birds, -1,176,- 361, ¢lizvis,. 24,440, 216, 228: 
in Paleolithic art, I, 250, 270, 271, 279- 
280, 437, 438. 

Birseck (Basle), II, 414. 

Bison, 1,39, 48, 52, (53, 152,160, 265, -210, 
213, 0219, (220.5 220;7 a s20n 230, 247 e240, 
242, 243, 243,* 244, 268, 269, 270, 271, 


INDEX 


272, 274," 290, 291, 320, g61,) 363; "a72 
438, II, 46, 170, 172; Tuc d’Audoubert, 
I, 238, 243, 249.* 

Bison priscus, I, 48, 142, 180-194, 214. 

Bithynia leachit, I, 347. 

Bits, bridle, II, 75, 186, 208,* 236, 287, 288. 

Bivalves, I, 69. 

Bize (Aude), I, 21, Il, 334, 423; manson, 
I, 4009. 

Black cock, II,--25; Sea, eltcemt te 

Blackberry, II, 156. 

Blackmore, I, 94, 96, 97. 

Blackthorn, II, 156. 

Blades, I, 101, 162, Il,.9, 21, 60; “Amaus. 
161,* 1653' Chatelperron, [301627010 see 
340; flint, I, 103, 142, 388, 391, 393, II, 13, 
64, 223; Gravette, I, 165, 166,* 174; pen- 
knife, II, 3, 5; strangled, I, 162, 163," 2652 

Blaireaux, Les (Namur), II, 303. 

Blaireaux, Les (Yonne), II, 334. 

Blane, Baron, Lj 222. 

Blanchard, I) z62yelleeay a. 

Blanchard-des-Roches, II, 334. 

Blangy-sur Bresle (Seine-Inférieure), II, 42, 


44. 

Blanzat, II, 334. 

Bleiche-Arbon, II, 156. 

Bleicher, I, 127. 

Blisland (Cornwall), II, 128. 

Blockhouses, II, 37, 73, 74, 75. 

Blood of man, tests of, I, 294. 

Blue fox, I, 397. 

Bluestone, II, 127, 128. 

Boar spear, II, 263*; Wild, see Wild boar. 

Boat hooks, II, 263.* 

Boats, II, 215-216; evolution of, II, 141-149. 

Bobache (Drome), II, 334. 

Bockstein (Wurttemberg), II, 385. 

Bodalfalive i145 

Bodman, Lake Constance, II, 73, 92. 

Body, covering of, I, 145 (see also Clothing) ; 
ornamentation of, I, 145; painting of, I, 
202, Il, 943 tattoomnt one ieode 

Boeufs, Les, II, 335, 423. 

Bog mosses, I, 58. 

Bogs, Neolithic, I, 65; peat, I, 39, II, 191, 
293. 

Bohemia, I, 158, 414, 415; II, 90, 91, 91,” 
95,* 159, 202," 251, 264, 267. 

Bohuslan, I, 74; II, 98,* 153, 160, 220, 22%0- 

latex, JI, Gees 

Boiron, II, 222. 

Bois d’Epinois, I, 106; de Langres, II, 245; 
du Roc, Il, 186; 20730335. 

Bolao (Oviedo), I, 292, II, 447. 

Bolas, I, 133, 137, 138, 139. 

Bolivia, II, 175. 

Bologna, IL, 1s2;e 153; 
247 e200 Sone 

Bologoie (Novgorod), II, 403. 

Bonarelli, I, 358. 

Boncelles, I, 100, ror. 

Bone, I, 103, 154, 155, 158, 162, 163, 165; 
174-180, 185, 187,* 193, 204-205, 213, 232, 
256, 292, 419, 436, II, 5, 13, 14, 15," 39, 
92, 97, 107, 120, 133, 141, 277; beads, 1, 
282, II, 9s, 222; compressor, I, 155; imi- 
tation teeth made from, II, 97; implements; 
oldest known, I, 104*; oldest known, fash- 
ioned by man, I, 433. 


188, 229, 242, 243, 


INDEX 


Bonfils, I, 392. 

Bonn Museum, I, 352. 

Bonnel, I, 128. 

Bonnet, 11, 143.* 

Bordes (Ariége), II, 106,* 106, 230. 

Boreal Period, I, 74. 

Borel’ F.. Ll, 250. 

Borge, Norway, II, 144.* 

Boring tools, II, 57. 

Borneo, I, 309, II, 181. 

Bornholm, II, 159. 

Borum-Eshoi, II, 201. 

Wosgel, 314, 243, 269, 271, 272, 273, 363, 
367, 413, 414, II, 5, 14; primigenius, I, 48, 
1275042, 143, 165, 211, 251," 350, 356, 
360, 393, 394, 419, 420, 438, II, 11, 25, 
46, 60; priscus, 116, 368; taurus, II, 62; 
taurus akeratos, II, 154; taurus brachy- 
ceros, Il, 154; taurus primigenius, II, 154; 
taurus urus, II, 15. 

Bos del Ser (Corréze), II, 335. 

Bosco (Tiber Valley), II, 395. 

Boskep, man of, I, 423. 

Bosnia, II, 2709. 

Bothnia, Gulf-of, I, 54, 71. 

Bottles, nursing, II, 207. 

Boucher de Perthes, I, 15 ,16, 25, 110, 111, 
411. 

Boué, I, 408. 

Bouicheta cave, I, 79. 

Boulder clay, I, 33, 38. 

Boule, M. I, 51, 91, 335, 360, 362, 374, 376, 
410, II, 5, 297. 

Bouleaux, Les (Saéne-et-Loire), II, 52. 

Boulogne, I, 63. 

Bourbonne, II, 218. 

Bourgeois, Abbé, I, 86, 147. 

Bourgés, I, 420. 

Bourget, Lake, II, 188. 

Bourrinet, I, 284. 

Bout-du-Monde, La (Dordogne), II, 423. 

Boutmy-Muchembled, I, 48, 80,* 110,* 142,” 
II, 335. 

Bouverets (Marne), II, 286. 

Bouyssonie, Abbé, I, 360. 

Bovidae, I, 81, 226, 268, 269, 270, 271, 273, 
438, II, 220; see also Bos. 

Boviolles (Oise), II, 264. 

Bowe fl, 27,0875, 153, 267, 269," 270"; 
bronze, II, 243; gold, II, 248, 249-250. 

Bows, Li, 130, 241,254. 

Box, I, 4o. 

Braband, Il, 15. 

Bracelets, II, 75, 97, 185, 189,* 190," 191, 
TOs, 201,602, 204, 211, 212, 223, 224, 
231, 232, 235, 247, 252, 268, 271, 272, 
273," 275,* 279, 284, 286, 287, 288, 388, 
389.* 

Brachycephaly, II, 47, 293, 294, 295, 296. 

Brady lemur, I, 299. 

Braiding, II, 92. 

Brain, I, 1, 2, 3; Mousterian, I, 378; stages 
in development of, I, 319.* 

Bramford, I, 97, 98.* 

Brandenberg, II, 193. 

Brandholz, I, 35. 

Brandon, II, 53, 55. 

Brassempouy, I, 155, 227,* 228,* 254, 256, 
260,* 405, 407, II, 171, 335, 424. 

Brassica rapa, II, 157. 


* 


483 


Brazil, II, 83. 

Bread, IL, 155: 

Breasted, II, 51. 

Breastplates, La Téne, II, 255. 

Breccia, I, 57: 

Bréchamps (Eure-et-Loire), I, 158; man of, 
L417: 

Bresle River, I, 63. 

Bretteville (La Manche), II, 336. 

HreutlsAbho, EA r3a,c247 101,, 140,48 1$4,..150. 
TOP 1O0, 193, e105 e6 2075) 215, a 216, 232, 
247," 230; 284, 397, II, 7, 18, 172, 419. 

Brick earth (limon supérieur), I, 44, 81. 

Bridle bits, II, 75, 186, 208,* 236, 287, 288. 

Bridbes wll, 1393) vos," 253,204. 

Brighton, I, 64. 

Brindisi, 11, 27:5. 

Bristol Channel, I, 394. 

British) Isles, 1,053, 54,55," §6, 57, 58.11; 
Ton SG OOOO MOOT a OZ) IZ Th ted tS, 1.04, 
197, 210, 230, 253, 254, 272, 275, 286, 
296; see also England, Scotland, etc. 

British Museum, I, 99, 116, 192, 416, II, 
BIZ. 25 7. 

British School of Archeology, II, 227. 

Britons, ancient, remains of, I, 394. 

iBiittaiy salen Ll One OO,8 O2e Sos SOnL OG; 
FOOMDLON CLE 1UA MTT Oye I24; 6204) 120) e150, 
179, 205, 220, 223, 297, 462. 

Brive, II, 291. 

Brixham (Devon), II, 316. 

Broca, I, 383; Ll, 161, 162, 163; 166, 204. 

Brochs, 115) 253: 

Brogger, I 73 75° 

ibrovatee ll wets oO. 

Broholm, II, 37. 

Broken Hill, man of, I, 369-372, 436. 

Bronzen leet, el leaAn we Os SOs 7.5.0 Lee LOO, 
iPeey, Winy Ow Bea Pei, ete) eeu Piney Eee 
254, 256, 257, 264, 268, 269, 271, 272, 274, 
275. uZes7 201, 200%, casting of, (11, 297,* 
192-193. 

Bronze. Age, I, 9, 13, 27, 49) 74, 75, 237s 
Tl,0 4; 34) 42; 45) 47,549, 59-515 5.2, 256, 
61, 63, 65, 75, 78, 81, 86, 88, 90, gt, 98, 
TOZ VOOM TO. Lo lel oo er oO me Ted ta hs. 
140, 150, 152, 153, 154, 157, 160, 175- 
226, 228, 231, 232, 234, 230," 240, 241, 242, 
243, 248,253, -205;.209,1 2745° 283, 285, 
288*; boats of, II, 143; chronology of, II, 
183-186; clothing of, I, 200, 201; com- 
merce in, II, 207—213; dates of, I, 76; habi- 
tations of, II, 186-188;hunting implements, 
II, 139; lake dwellings, II, 68, 69; man of 
Iie 206, 2073 pictographs,, Ll, 144*3 "pile 
villages of, Il, 73, 74; pottery of, II, 
205-207; religion and art in, II, 213-222; 
stations, II, 72. 

Broom, I, 424, 425. 

Brough, II, 182. 

Brouillet, I, 22, II, 64. 

Brown, J. Allen, I, 122. 

Briickner, I, 34, 37, 48, 60, 61. 

Briinn (Moravia), I, 194, II, 420; man of, 
TI, 396; Museum, I, 354. 

Bitix, I, 158; man of, I, 414. 

Bruniquel (Tarn-et-Garonne), I, 23, 192, 
230,* 269, Il, 141, 170, 336, 424. 

Brunner, II, 224. 

Brussels Museum, I, 354. 


484 


Bubalus antiquus, I, 127. 

Bubastis, II, 152. 

Bubenac. lI, 224.5 

Buchan, Wises maa. 

Buchannan, II, 144. 

Buchenloch (Rhine), I, 142, II, 385. 

Buchheim (Baden), II, 245. 

Buckets, II, 265; bronze, II, 240,* 241. 

Buckingham, II, 58. 

Buckland, I, 394. 

Buckles; -lie2or,.27%. 

Budapest, II, 88. 

Buhl-Gschnitz warm phase, I, 60. 

Buhl stage, I, 37, 49, 60, 61, 84. 

Buffalo, domestic, II, 151; Indian, I, 314. 

Building, II, 109, 133. 

Buissiéres, cave of, II, 223. 

Bulbs of percussion, I, tor. 

Bulgaria, 1,167, 436, Il, s12i, 312. 

JEyeN AL, Bie 2XSy 

Bulldog) Li, s1s2. 

Bulleid, II, 253. 

Bullen, I, 94. 

Bultel-Tellier pits, 80, 81, 82,* 106. 

Burchell, Il, 172. 

Burgaeschii, 911, 57. 

Burgos, I, 243. 

Burials, I, 159, 176, 386, 387, 388,380," 
390, 392, 393, 6394 (3955. 4300).9690, e412, 
TE os, 160, 18s) 000, se LO ten oa ows 
243, 247, 272, 274, 277, 279, 296, 462; 
Azilian, ld; 5" 202—2033, British, Il e206. 
Bronze Age, JI, 137,* 222-225; chariot, 
IG VIR kU, Py) exon Elon, meyteyy Stion 
281, 282,* 283, 286, 288; double, II, 285%; 
Eneolithic;, Il,” 2247: ) Hallstatt, 11 230— 
236; in caves, I, 1o3—106; Iron Age, II, 
229; La Téne, II, 279-288; Magdalenian, 
401, 402 ,4c3, 405; Mousterian, I, 145, 360, 
361; Multiple ie 2ss5 ss Neolithicy teat os— 
108, 379, 395, Il, 22, 28-36, 58, 95, 103- 
T27., 0137.78 12005 es baleoliinic, Llc 2 capt. 
230; ship, II, 146, 147, 148; stone-cist, II, 
107-108, 109*; successive, II, 234; Tarden- 
oisian, II, 292-293; tree, II, 285; under 
erratics, II, 106—107;Viking, II, 137*; see 
also Graves and Incineration. 

Burma, II, 148. 

Burra Burrage leas 

Burrenhof (Wiirttemberg), II, 232, 245. 

Bury St. Edmunds, man of, I, 415. 

Bushman, I, 315, 407, II, 172. 

Busk, George, I, 350. 

Busunova (Yenesei), II, 405. 

Butimites wo r,6 Oso OO: 

Buttons, 0, 193,5105, 15 lsloz 250, meso. 

Buxu, El (Asturias), IJ, 407, 448. 

Byéiskala (Moravia), II, 232, 313. 

Bythin, II, 218. 

Byzantine culture, II, 49. 


Cabbage, II, 157. 

Caches, see Hoards. 

Caddington (Bedfordshire), 97, 118, 122.* 
Caenopithecus, I, 299. 

Caesat, Livg2s su2ose 

Cagny, 119337, 

Gairns eyo iow rie. 
Caisteal-nan-Gillean, II, 8. 

Cala, La (Malaga), II, 407, 448. 


INDEX 


Calais-Dover watershed, I, 63. 

Calapata (Teruel), II, 448. 

Calcite; el iaso: 

Calévie, La (Dordogne), II, 424. 

Callais, II, 98. 

Callithrix, I, 299. 

Callus, IL, 160; 

Camaret, II, 129. 

Camargo (Santander), II, 407, 448; man of, 
I, 399. 

Cambous, Les (Lot), II, 337, 424. 

Camel L372. 

Camp-Barbet, II, 64. 

Camp d’Affrique, II, 236, 237; de Catenoy, 
II, 64; de Chassey, Il, +63)" 64) eomuee 
186, 301; de Chateau, - 11, 236,"aa7peeaes 
sites, I, 100; 114, 228: 

Campaglia Marittima, II, 179. 

Campignian Epoch, I, 27, 72, 73) S49) 1% 
Bier Ay US 

Campigny (Seine-Inférieure), II, 42, 44, 45.* 

Camps, II, 186, 462; fortified, II, 46; Neo- 
lithic, II, 63-64: 

Canaanites, II, 49, 50. 

Canary laurel, I, 4o. 

Cangas de Onis, II, 59, 102. - 

Canidae, II, 274; in Paleolithic art;7a9e. 
see also Canis. 

Canis, I, 142, 274, 320; familiaris inostran- 
zewi, II, 154; familiaris intermedius II, 
154; familaris leineri, II, 154; familiaris 
palustris, II, 154; lagopus, I, 48, 165, 180; 
lupus, I, 48, 143, 165, 180, 194; matris op- 
time, II, 154; simensis, II, 152; vulpe, 48, 
E43; 2105; Lode 

Canoes, II, 141-145. 

Canstadt, man of, I, 408. 

Cantalian, I, 84. 

Cantos de la Visera, II, 448. 

Cap-Blane (Dordogne), I, 233, 235, 242,* 285, 
438, II, 338, 424, 460; man of, I, 403. 

Capanne Vechie, II, 177. 

Capart,7),. Une2oo. 

Capell rupicapra, I, 48. 

Capellini, I, 86, 87. 

Capitan, I, 24, 87, 234, “158, (200tn cone 
2, 66, 419, 462. 

Capra, I, 368, hircus kelleri, II, 154; hircus 
riitimeyert, II, 154; ibex, I, 48, 165, 180, 
194. 

Capri (Campania) ya ligesose 

Capridzx, I, 269; 271, 272, 274+ in) Paleolirme 
art, I, 438; see also Capra. 

Capsian culture, I, 158-159, 171, 201. 

Captives, enemy, II, 286. 

Carasoles del Bosque (Albacete), II, 448. 

Carcassonne Museum, II, 

Carchemish, II, 182. 

Carding, II, 93. 

Cardium edule, I, 39, II, 15, 24, 140. 

Caries, I, 3503. 370;u leer oos 

Carinthia; “Il, 272 

Carnacs) Li ras eaio: 

Carnacian Epoch, J, 27. 

Carniola, II, 187, 232, 242, 200; 

Carnivora, extinct, I, 22. 

Carnyx, II, 260. 

Caro, sly 106: 

Carp, I, 281, 283, II, 140; in Paleolithic 
arty L438. 


INDEX 


Carpathians, I, 54. 

Carpinus betulus, II, 157. 

Carriages, II, 145. 

Carrierés du Hainaut (Hainaut), II, 304. 

Carrot, :1J;. 155. 

Cartailhac, JI, 23, 24, 86, 87, ,91, .159, 
176, 197, 247," 283, 284, 400, II, 5, 104, 
419. 

Carthage, II, 272.* 

Carving knives, II, 280,* 281. 

Cases, painted, II, 252. 

Caspian Sea, II, 157. 

Cassites, II, 51. 

Castanea sativa, II, 157. 

Castellazzo di Paroletta, II, 187,* 188. 

Castenedolo, man of, I, 411. 

Casteret, 1,.330, 241; II, x71. 

Castillo (Santander), JI, 22,* 138,* 214,* 
2iGjeee4s, 262). 263, 270," 272, 275, 292, 
II, 171, 408, 448; man of, I, 399, 405. 

Castione, II, 188. 

Custor, 1; 324,/33; fiber, 1,142, 180, 194. 

Catarrhinian apes, I, 302, 308, 309. 

Catenoy (Oise), II, 64. 

Catlin, II, 173. 

Cats, domestic, II, 152; see also Felis. 

Cattegat,(cl,-71, (72: 

Cattle, domestic, II, 45. 

Cau-Durban, Abbé, II, 230. 

Caucasus, LE, 30,119, 121, 123, 277. 

Cauldrons, II, 243, 264. 

Cave art, I, 180, II, 140, 437, 438, 430, see 
GsonAtt bear, 1,57, 76, 70, 150, 160, 173, 
174, 269, 270, 278, 346, 350, 352, 356, 359, 
368, 394, 408, 419; dwellings, II, 48, 49, 61; 
hyena, 1, 160, 173, 0174; 356, 359, 410; 
lion, I, 57, 160, 174, 359. 

eves. 120-24, 130, 139, 143, 212, -234, I, 
22, 186, 291, 462; Altamira, see Altamira; 
artificial, II, 220; Bouicheta, I, 79; burials 
in, II, 103-106; Castillo, see Castillo; Chaf- 
Put ea era 3 3* 3 Chaleux, 
Eits7, 140; Chavaux, Il, 106; Combe, 
see Combe; Cotencher, I, 76, 77, 79, 1413 
Cottés, I, 163,* 244*; Drachenloch, see 
Drachenloch; Espelugues, I, 234,* 273,* 
405; Espelunges, II, 172; Ferrassie, see 

Ferrassie; Lorthet, I, 228,* 236,* 269, 270, 
266; Uiairie, 1, 186,* 216, 222, 232,* 284; 
Womtiemelen1g0; 243.7. 291, 405, Il, 7: 
Neolithic, II, 99; of Isis, II, 229; Placard, 
Ruth, I, 177; St.-Martin d’Excideuil, I, 
to" sev ictoria, 1, 56; Wildkirchli, I, 57, 
75,97; 79: 

Cavillon skeleton, I, 391.* 

Cazurro, I, 357: 

Cebidae, I, 299, 309. 

Cebus, I, 299, 301.* 

Celebes, II, 69, 148. 

Celle-sous-Moret, La, I, 40, 41.* 

Celles (Cantal), II, 262, 265, 267. 

Celtic Epoch, II, 227; race, II, 23s, 
279. 

Celts, I, 9, IT, 36, -57, 144. 

Cemeteries, I, 176; II, .89,- 121, 222, 224, 
225, 228, 229, 230, 231-232, 234, 235, 236, 
246, 247, 248, 254, 262, 279, 281, 287; Neo- 
lithic, II, 108. 

Central America, I, 192. 

Peramice, 11) 22, 62, 75, 7G,+133,. 161,° 205, 


267, 


485 


284; color in, II, 79; factory for, II, 83; 
Paleolithic, 237-245; potter’s wheel in, II, 
82. 

Cercopithecidae, I, 309. 

Cercopithecus, I, 309. 

Cereals, II, 46. 

Cerebrum, I, 2;' 3: 

Cergy (Seine-et-Oise), I, 118, II, 338. 

Cerralbo, Marquis of, I, 24; 100, 174,- II, 
235, 236, 287. 

Certosa, La (Bologna), II, 238,* 247, 260; 

_ Epoch II, 2303: fibulae, II, 230, 247.* 

Certova-dira (Moravia), I, 142, II, 313. 

Cerunnus, IT, 261.* 

Cervetri, I], ~ 220. 

Cervide, I, 268, 270, 271, 274, 438; see also 
Cervus. 

Cervus, I, 105, 269, 413; alcea, I, 180; cana 
densis, I, 48; caprea, I, 98; capreolus, I, 
Di Oma lLOSs LOA we LIT Se COVGT | eAGs 
dama, I, 363; elaphus, I, 48, 81, 112, 114, 
TLO tt 6, 127.2142, 105, 190, 20850324, 6347, 
Boon 301, 1,0 15,118 7a see, also. Red. deers 
latifrons, I, 320; megaceros, I, 116, 143, 
165; solihacus, I, 63; somonensis, I, 63; 
tarandus, I, 48. 

Cévennes, II, 66. 

Chabot (Gard), II, 338, 425. 

Chaffaud (Vienne), cave of, I, 22, 23,* 213, 
224, 233,” II, 339, 425. 

Chaing,. 11,7202, 231, .272. 

Chaise, La (Charente), II, 339, 425. 

Chalainee lake tl Saa4isouss: 

Chaleedony, 1.115, 350. 

Chaldeans, II, 50, 85, 178. 

Chaleaux, Le (Namur), II, 137,* 138, 304, 


306. 
Chalkjel. 69, 0415,-12, 383, beltjsingland;. I, 
92-97, 327. 


Chalon-sur-Sa6ne, Museum of, I, 1709. 

Chalons-sur-Marne (Marne), II, 262. 

Chamaison, II, 6. 

Ghampberlinye Ll. C1551. or. 

Chamblandes, II, 95, 108. 

(CinebanenGy Ub > GS ee 
272, 274, 438, II, 46. 

Champ de Mars, II, 3309. 

Champignolles (Oise), II, 58, 67, 167. 

Champigny (Aube), II, 202. 

Champlain sub-stage, I, 61. 

Champlevé, I, 216. 

Champs-Blancs (Dordogne), II, 339, 425. 

Champs de la Butte, Le, II, 235, 236. 

Chancelade, I, g01, 407; man ney Jk Zhe e Mm 
292. cs 

Channel Islands, I, 145; Aurignacian in, I, 
167; Mousterian in, I, 146; Paleolithic sites 
in, II, 312-313: 

Channel river, I, 46, 63, 65. 

Chantre, I, 87, II, 286. 

Chapelle, La (Jura), II, 223. 

Chapelle-aux-Saints, La (Corréze), I, 145, 
376,* 435; man of, I, 344, 360-362, 363,* 
377- 

Charbonniéres (Maconnais), II, 66. 

Charco del Agua Amarga, El (Teruel), IT, 449. 

Charcoal, II, 57, 119, 136, 284,. 287; in pre- 
historic pottery, II, 78, 79. 

Chardin, Father Teilhard de, I, 152, 
331, 372. 


208, we 2OG se 7 1, 


201, 


486 


Charentewl, 120sel lm 107. 

Chariot) burials,. 1.9220) 234,00 235s5 230. eeon, 
27S ee lOO, ee CMEC OL es OS eee OO EOS 

Charioteer, Barrow of, II, 288. 

Chartots,, Ply rss, 12i3,elA, wet oyeelmes A. 
235, 230, 2479 2575.0 bene, lilsaecogs 
votive, II, 207; war, II, 150. 

Charlock, II, 157. 

Charms, II, 279. 

Chartres, I, 86, 106. 

Chasse a Vaurochs, I, 260. 

Chassey, see Camp de Chassey. 

Chateau, Le (Dordogne), II, 340. 

Chateau-neuf-du-Pape (Gard), II, 9. 

du Chatellier, P., II, 251. 

Chatelperron, I, 162, 165, II, 340; blades, I, 
EG2s 105s 10055 

Chatillon-sur-Seiche (Ille-et-Vilaine), II, 219. 

Chatillon-sur-Seine (Cote d’Or), II, 234, 236, 


243. 

Chatt-el-Regal, II, 148. 

Chavannes (Schafis), II, 46. 

Chavaux, cave of, II, 106. 

Cheddar, man of, I, 414. 

Cheese, II, 153, 207. 

Cheiromyidae, I, 299. 

Chellean SE poch ely) 27.40 40s Aye oes OF OSs 
64, 65, 84, 104, 105, 109-116, 348, 433, 
434; fauna of, I, 116, 434; type station for 
eet Osa 

Chelles, I, 104, 109,*, 118,* II, 341. 

Chéne, Le (Namur), II, 3504 

Chenopodium album, II, 155. 

Cherry, II, 156. 

Chestnut, Il, 157. 

Chevalier, Abbé, II, 64. 

Chevrons, II, 63, 86, 287. 

Chevroux, II, 187, 219. 

Chichester, II, 58. 

Chickens Ti ns. 

Chiefs, burial of, during La Téne Epoch, II, 
281. 

Chile; i175. 

Chillesford clay, I, 52. 


Chimpanzee, I, 294,° 295, 297, 298," 2900, 
306, *ag07) 399;. 310," 2 335s08890,7 93a57., 
340, 363.* 


China, *)430;) Ji; 180, °475; 1787 70.0150, 
182; human remains in, I, 372; Magda- 
lenian in, I, 201; Mousterian in, I, 152. 

Chipped flints, I, 94, 96, 99, 100, 105, 106, 
117, 150, 174, 381, 433, °434; IL) 26, 927, 
35, 47, 107, 218; Acheulian, I, 132; Eocene 
and Oligocene, I, 100; Miocene and Plio- 
cene, I, 86, 90, 97; Mousterian, I, 132, 
140; Pre-Chellean, I, 108. 

Chipping, II, 40; parallel, II, 42. 

Chips, utilized, I, 111, 112, 113, II, 9, 26. 

Chipstead (Kent), I, 91. 

Chiquita de los Trenta (Almeria), II, 449. 

(Chiron elem: 

Chisels; If, 5,12," (23,° 355 937.7 472 48; 7S 
197;7. 188,100," giz, « £09,02070 

Chloromelanite, II, 47. 

Choisy, II, 114. 

Chopping blocks, I, ror, 138, 157,* 363; 
Mousterian, geographic distribution of, I, 
152-153. 

Chopping knives, I, 106, 

Chouquet, I, 104. 


INDEX 


Christiania, I, 73, 75; Fjord, 1) 75,008, euae: 
University of, II, 146. 

de Christol, I, 22, 409. 

Christy, I, 23, 131,°172, 1184, 192, 233) 262 
283, 382," Il, 138; 54%e: 

Chronology, I, 5; Babylonia, Elam, and 
Amurru, II, 50-51; Bronze Age, II, 183—- 
186; cultural, I, 76-84; Egypt, Persia, and 
Crete, II, 51, 52; geologic, I, 26; Ice Age, 
I, 76-84; Neolithic, II, 21, 23-52; Old 
Stone Age, I, 431; Palestine, II, 49-50; 
prehistoric, I, 9-27; revealed by ancient 
glaciers, I, 33; Scandanavia, I, 72-76; 
tables of, I, 25-28. 

Churns wiegerss: 

Cioclovina (Transylvania), II, 393. 

Cissbury, II, 52, 57-58, 60. 

Cists, masonry, II, 223; stone, I, 27, 74, II, 
22, 23, 36, 107-108, 122. 

Clarke, W. G., I, 08: 

Clasps, II, 192. 

Claviform signs, in Paleolithic art, I, 288—- 
291. 

Claxton-on-Sea, I, 109, 433. 

Clay, I, 293, I], 158, 231; banded, I, 66, 68; 
firing of, II, 82-86, 158; Holocene, I, 80; 
lacustrine, I, 40; stamps, II, 94, used by 
Neolithic potter, II, 76-77; varved, I, 66. 

Clay, AS Dee ulsso: 

Cleavers, I, 17,*..25;, 27581, .83) 1os,mnoG- 
112, 122, 126,128, 9233, (142; ioe lees 
162, 360, 367, 415, 420, 436, IT, 357; 
Acheulhian, I, 1716, 1197, 110," 127, igo, 
66; Chellean; I, 64,105, 110," 420 1, eee 
127, 134; limande, I, 116, 118; Mousterian, 
I, 134, 135;% 143"3 pointed, 91, §r20.s tree 
Chellean, I, 113; quartzite, I, 116,” 127; 
twisted, I 116. 

Clermont (Oise), I, roz, II, 64. 

Clessé (Maconnais), II, 66. 

Clichy, man of, I, 413. 

Climate, I, 30, 124, 422; Ancylus, I, 991; 
changes in, 1, 38-42, 59-62; Daniglacial, 
I, 70; Fenno-Scandia, I, 74; First Inter- 
glacial, I, 53; interglacial, I, 41; Iron Age, 
I, 72; Littorina, I, 72; Neolithic, I, 73, I, 
21; Pleistocene, I, 74; Pliocene, I, 51; post- 
Littorina, I, 72; post-Wtirmian, of Scot- 
land, I, 58-59; steppe, I, 38, temperate, 
beginning of, I, 434; Trinil, I, 314; Up- 
per Paleolithic, I, 436. 

Closmadeuc, II, 124. 

Cloth belts, II, 71; linen, II, 46; platted, II, 
II, 96*; woven, II, 92. 

Clothing, Bronze Age, II, 200-201; Hall- 
Stattian, I], 231, 244,7. 246-2503) lauemes 
II, 268; Neolithic, II, 39, 46, 93; Paleo- 
lithic, I, 232, 240," 2092, 436; Stone wAge, 
I, 436. 

Clotilde de Santa Isabel, La (Santander), I, 
243, 251,” II, 449. 

Clubs, I, 397, II, 38, 139. 

Clucy, II, 223. 

Cluzeau, Le (Charente), II, 341. 

Clyde, T5771 1" 14 

Cnossos, II, 220. 

Cobalejos (Santander), II, 408. 

Cobalt, II, 272. 

Cocchi, I, 412. 

de Cocherel, M., I, 9. 


INDEX 


Cockles, II, 24. 

Coe’s pit, I, 97, 98. 

Coffins, II, 200, 201, 230, 285, 287. 

Cogul, I, .232,- 240,” IT, 449. 

Coiffure, I, 394. 

Coins, see Money. 

Coizard, II, 100. 

Cold Mousterian, fauna of, I, 132, 141, 143.* 

Coléoptére, Le (Luxembourg), II, 304, 420. 

Coleopters, I, 285, 438. 

Collars. Il. 202, 304. 

Collorgues (Gard), II, 100. 

Colmar Museum, I, 413. 

Colombier, II, 188. 

Colombiére, La (Ain), II, 341, 425. 

Color, I, 216, 217, 218, 234, 263, 293, 437, 
IT, 46, 79, 94, 156, 271. 

Comarque (Dordogne), II, 426. 

Combarelles, I, 194, 216, 219,* 220,* 249, 
262, 269, 290, 291, II, 342, 426, 460. 

Combe, La (Dordogne), I, 133,* 134, 135,” 
Pay tae T4at, 155.~ 156," 157," 162," 
163," 211, 308, I], 342; man of, I, 398. 

Cambe-Capelle, II, 343; man of, I, 210, 383- 
385, 398, 405. 

Combs, 10,15," 201, 204, 274; weavers’, II, 
253, 275: 

Commerce, Bronze Age, II, 
lithic, IJ, 158—160. 

Commont, I, 18, 19, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 64, 
NomerOks «200,70 022, 113; "122, 134,. 142, 
143. 

Community life encouraged by fire, II, 138. 

Compasses, II, 262; magnetic, II, 182. 

Complexes, culture, II, 133-134. 

Compressors, I, 133; bone, I, 155; Mous- 
terian, geographic distribution of, I, 152- 
1§3. 

Concise, II, 72, 140," 153, 187, 219. 

Concretions, I, 45, 81. 

Conde, El (Austurias), II, 409. 

Conduché (Lot), II, 343, 426. 

Conduits, II, 218. 

Conflans-Ste.-Honorine 
166.* 

Congo, I, 434, II, 81, 83; Chellean and 
Acheulian in, I, 128; cultures of Africa 
represented by, I, 123. 

Conservation, II, 22. 

Constance, II, 154; Lake of, II, 73, 74. 

Conventionalized figures in Paleolithic art, I, 
287.* 

Cooking, II, 

Cope, I, 301. 

Copenhagen, II, 216; National Museum of, 
tte, is, 246, IT) 463. 

Copper, ii Il, II, 45, 47, 59, 79, 90, 175, 176- 
i7o,et 70, LO0;n1G3, 105;.197, 208, 222, 223, 
gass ace of, E1,.§6, 120, 122, 177,-.1833 
first, II, 71; mines, I, 4o. 

mess II, 95, 141, 248, 257, 269, 277, 279, 
284, 

Corao (Asturias), II, 102. 

Corbicula fluminalis, I, 40, 116, 125. 


207-213; Neo- 


(Seine-et-Oise), II, 


138. 


Corcelettes, II, 69, 72, 157, 187, 188, 208,* 
ZrO. 

Mores, r2o0, 121, Il, 56, 60. See also 
Nuclei. 


Corgnac (Dordogne), II, 426. 
Cork plugs, II, 144. 


487 


Corn, see Maize. 

Cornelian, II, 227. 

Cornero F 7, J} 417. 

Corneto, II, 229. 

Cornus mas, I, 53. 

Cornwall, II, 59, 121, 175, 178, 179, 288. 

Correlation tables, I, 60, 61, 84. 

Corréze, I, +361, II, 201. 

Corsica, II, 142. 

Cortailloid, II, 69, 71, 72, 187, 219, 301. 

Cortijo de los Treinta, El (Almeria), II, 449. 

Corylus avellana, II, 156. 

Cote d'Or; Hl, -243. 

Cotencher (Neuchatel), I, 76, 77, 79, 141, II, 
415. 

Coto de la Zarza, El, II, 4s. 

Cotte de St. Brelade, La, I, 368, II, 312. 

Cottés, Les (Vienne), I, 163,* 244. 

Coumba del Bouitou, La (Corréze), I, 164.* 

Coup de poing, I, 25, 27, 110. 

Court-St.-Etienne (Belgium), II, 245. 

Courtevant, II, 223. 

Couze, 1, 383,011? 343: 

Covalanas (Santander), II, 450. 

Cow, LH, 35, 231." 

Crab apple, EI, 156. 

Crane, I, 279, 438. 

Cranial capacity, Bréchamps man, I, 417; 
Broken Hill man, I, 370; Dartford man, 
I, 419; Gibraltar man, I, 351; Langwith 
man, I, 420; Mousterian man, I, 376-377; 
Raymonden man, I, 402. 

Cranial development, stages in, I, 363.* 

Crannogs, I, 14, II, 69, 86. 

Grato, ell. 102: 

Crayford (Kent), I, 121. 

Crayons, I, 216, 235, 237, 245.* 

Crécy (Seine-et-Marne), II, 106. 

Creffield Road, Acton (Middlesex), I, 122. 

Crescent symbols, II, 250, 279. 

Crescents, pottery, II, 219.* 

Creswell Crags (Derbyshire), II, 316. 

Crete, II, 81, 182, 204, 228; chronology of, 
JARS Page ee 

Crimea, II, 16, 30, 121, 279. 

Crochet needles, wooden, II, 92. 

Crocodiles, I, 422. 

Cro-Magnon, I, 162, II, 262, 344, 426, 460; 
art. L435 sniatna,1. 495s) man. Parse .eaT0, 
380-383, 388, 390, 393, 398, 406, II, 94, 
292, 204, 295, 297. 

Cromer, I, 97, II, 317; elephant bed, I, 53; 
Forest-bed, I, 39, 63, 106. 

Cromlechs, II, 117, 123-129, 215. 

Crossier, I, 6s. 

Crot-du Charnier, I, 172, 398, 390. 

Crouzade, La, cave of, II, 6, 344, 427. 

Crova, Madame, I, 151. 

Crow Indians, II, 173. 

Crowns, gold, II, 235. 

Croze a Gontran, La (Dordogne), II, 427; 
de Tayac, La (Dordogne), II, 427. 

Crozo de Gentillo (Lot), I, 286, II, 344, 427. 

Crozon, II, 124, 129. 

Crucibles, II, 45, 192. 

Crugou, II, 88.* 

Crustaceans, I, 57, 69. 

Crustal movements, I, 58, 63, 69, 71, 72, 
73, 74, II, 11, 25; see also Emergences and 
Submergences. 


488 INDEX 


Cryptopithecus, I, 299. 

Cucigliana (Tuscany), II, 395. 

Cucuteni, Rumania, II, 90, 93,* 94. 

Cueto de la Mina (Asturias), IJ, 409, 450. 

Cueva de Menga, II, 121; de Viera, II, 122; 
del Romeral, II, 122. 

Cuirasses, II, 193, 197. 

Cults, Sun, II, 208, 213-218, 249. 

Cultural chronology, correlation of, with Ice 
Age chronology, I, 76-84; relics, oldest 
known, I, 433. 

Culture complexes, prehistoric, II, 133-134. 

Culture, Acheulian, I, 47, 123-129; Chellean, 
I, 123-129; Eolithic, I, 104; evolution of, 
II, 133; Hallstattian, II, 230; Lower Paleo- 
lithic, I, 123, 434; Magdalenian, I, 21*; 
Mousterian, I, 436; Neolithic, I, 65, 104, 
II, 7o0*; Mostvet, I, 73-75; Paleolithic, I, 
104; Solutrean, I, 180-183. 

Cuperly (Marne), II, 257. 

Cups, iT; 216, 217, 235, 243, 244, 246, 265; 
cranial drinking, II, 72. 

Cureties, Il;.272: 

Cursive writing, I, 246, II, 6. 

Cutesson (Seine-et-Oise), II, 345. 

Cuvier 40s. 

Cuzco, Uieoeross 

Cunacephalis: I, 299, 309. 

Cynomorphs, I, 309. 

Conppine cans Lee2zoos 

Cypraea, I, 285, Il, 97, 141, 392, 393; 
lurida, I, 400; pyrum, I, 400; shell, ivory 
facsimile of, I, 438. 

Gyprits, Li 177.0 Zo: 

Cyrena fluminalis, I, 47, 65. 

Cyrill Street, Kief (Ukraine), heez4c. 

Cyrus, Lieno: 

Craraencee Ty 1275, 2990: 

Czechoslovakia, I, 142, 145, 265, 273, 282, 
436, 438, II, 88, 183, 247, 251, 252, 277, 
281, 285, 286, 287, 296; Aurignacian of, 
I, 166, 167; Magdalenian of, I, 197, 201, 
203, 204; Mousterian of, I, 146; Paleolithic 
art in, II, 420; Paleolithic sites in, II, 313. 


Dacia, II, 180. 

Daggers, -11,: 12," 185%. 38, 39,)/09, E2esezges” 
221.0222, 2503) Hallstattian, li,ees 7nd 

’ Téne, II, 254*; Neolithic, II, 40-42, 43.* 

Daleat ely 2rsia38 elie G7. 

Dalmatia, lI 180m ore 

Damascus, II, 183. 

Dampont (Seine-at-Oise), II, 100, 119. 

Danes’ Graves, II, 288. 

Danewort, II, 46, 156. 

Daniglacial stage, I, 67,* 70. 

Danish National Museum, II, 12. 

Danube River and Valley, I, 36, 43; II, 
88.5109, -1Ok, 2is,) S20. necoy,e2ore 

Darbas, II, 6. 

Darent Valley, I, 92, 93. 

Darlet, I, 148. 

Darsser Schwelle, I, 71. 

Dart throwersee loa 103, bs Sse LOL mer OS Emo. 
TO4,* (22205) 436, Ll ai sO.n Ose alen= 
lithic, geographic distribution of, 206. 

Dartford, man of, I, 418, 419. 

Darts, in Paleolithic art, I, 291. 

Darwin, el, 3t373, site 

Dashour, II, 150. 


Daucus carota, II, 155. 

Daun stage, I, 38, 49, 60, 61, 84. 

David, I, 241, 242. 

David, cave of, I, 262. 

David, King, II, 4o. 

David (Lot), IT, 427. 

Davis, H. N., I, 414. 

Dawkins, B., I, 418. 

Dawson, I, 107, 323, 324, II, 48. 

Dead, care of, I, 145; cult of, II, 22; see 
also Burials. 

Debary sand pit, I, 80, 106. 

Déchelette, II, 124, 129, 184, 185, 191, 218, 
222, 241,° 264, 26870207.) 271-6 

Deckenschotter, I, 34. 

Deer, I, 39, 52, 53), 545 °4005 1525 7 asmegas 
314, 372; axis, I, 314; fallow, 1, 363; red, 
see Red deer and Cervus elephus; roe, II, 
60, rusa, I, 314. 

Deerhorn, I, 392, II, 8, 13, 14, 53, 54, 55s 
56, 57, 58. 59, 61. 

Deerhound, II, 154. 

Defesa (Estramadura), II, 222. 

Deities, household, II, go. 

Delgado, I, 86. 

Delmarés, I, 380. 

Delphi, II, 286. 

Deluge, I, 16. 

Denise, man of, I, 41o. 

Denmark, I, 58, 67, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74s 
75, 177; Il, (3, )5%; 925) 337 905.seeee 
42, 098," 121, 137.7) 19% 213 Nolo eeour 
prehistoric monuments in, II, 463; transi- 
tional culturesin, 1.6; 7. 

Dentalium shell beads, I, 3096. 

Depéret, C., I, 62, 398. 

Deposits, alluvial, I, 41,* 44, 47, 64, 65, 66; 
fluvio-glacial, I, 35; interglacial, I, 38; 
valley, 1; 10,75 2oserzomeer2: 

Derby, II, 288; Road, I, 97. 

Derbyshire, II, 94, 128, 4109. 

Desfiladero de Leira (Almeria), II, 451. 

Desnoyers, I, 86. 

Desor, 1) 86;>Rl pa4aayeese: 

Devon, II, 288. 

Dewlish (Dorset), I, 96. 

Dharvent, I, 209. 

Diarbehr, II, 178: 

Diarville (Vosges), II, 245. 

Dice, List 26243 

Didon, II, 171. 

Diestian Sea, I, 63. 

Dillenia, I, 315. 

Dinotherium, I, 52; giganteum, I, 87. 

Diodorus, II, 209, 268, 274. 

Diospolis parva, II, 148. 

Diprothomo, I, 302. 

Dipylon Period, II, 227, 228. 

Diravica (Moravia), II, 421. 

Disease, see Healing, also under Teeth. 

Disks, I, 106, 133, 162, 396; for games, 
II, 264; perforated, II, 75. 

Divinities, winged female, II, 242. 

Dnieper Valley, I, 54. 

Dniester River, II, 211. 

Docteur, Le (Liége), II, 305. 

Dog, II, 11, 15, 25, 35, 60, 97, 147, 1503 
domestic, II, 140, 151, 152, 154; see also 
Canis. 

Dog rose, II, 156. 


a ae | 


INDEX 


Dolichocephaly, II, 47, 292, 293, 294. 

Dolichopithecus, I, 299. 

Dollfus, I, 63. 

Dollikon, I, 15. 

Dotarens, Ijaz, 27, 74, Il, 22, 23, 28-35, 

. 39, 40, 48, 49, 65, III, 114-123, 165, 167, 
185; Bronze Age, II, 119; epoch of, II, 
42; geographic distribution of, II, 121; 
origin of, II, 122. 

Domestication, of animals and plants, I, 75, 
Il, 22, 35, 45, 47, 133, 140, I5I-154- 

Dompierre (Allier), II, 224. 

Dona Trinidad (Malaga), II, 450. 

Dordogne, I, 134, 155,* 194, 249, 399, II, 
67, 141, II, 462. 

Doré—Delente collection, Dreux, I, 416. 

Dormouse, II, 60. 

Dorris, II, 196.* 

Dorset, I, 95, 97. 

Doubs, II, 235. 

Doumergue, I, 127. 

Douris, EE, 211." 

Drachenberg, I, 78.* 

Dracheloch (St. Gallen), I, 78,* 79,* 
415. 

Dryopithecus, I, 299, 305; fontani, I, 304. 

Dubois, I, 53, 313, 315, 418. 

Dubreux, II, 53. 


140, II, 


tiaek, ot. 270,0 11,024, 281, 438; domestic, 
a ae 

Duckworth, I, 351, 418. 

Duerost; Abbé, I, 172, 174, 176. 

Dierst, I, 213. 

Dufaure, II, 345, 428. 

Duhren, HE, 271.* 

Durnten, I, 57. 

Dtirntenian Epoch, I, 57, 60, 61. 

Dugdale, Sir William, I, 9. 

Dugouts, II, 142, 143,* 145, 148. 

Dunes, I, 47, 64, 65. 

Dungeness, I, 96, 327. 

Dunkirk, I, 65. 

Dun-le-Roi (Cher), II, 262. 

Dunstable, I, 97. 

Diuparc. 1,284. 

Dupont, 131150, 282, 354, 412, II, 106, 137. 


Durfort clays, I, 53. 
Duruthy, cave of, I, 
Dyeing, II, 46. 


402, IT, 345, 428. 


Eagle, II, 242. 

Earrings, II, 
272. 

Earth, age of, \1, 28. 

East Anglia, I, 97-100, II, 136, 420; Read- 
ine, Il, 287. 

Eastbourne, Sussex, I, 94, 96. 

Easthampstead, I, 95. 

Eaton (Norfolk), II, 318. 

Eaton pit, I, 98. 

Ebenalp, I, 57, 76, 77." 

Edwards, I, 395. 

Eel, I, 284, 438, II, 24, 140, 171. 

Effigy figures, I, 208,* II, 75. 

Eglises, Les (Ariége), II, 345, 428. 

Eguisheim, I, 158; man of, I, 413. 

Faye, 1,277,304, 311, 434, II, 7, 42,°51, 
52, 82, 85, 89, 121, 123, 147, 148, 150, 
£52, 353, 154, 177, 178, 179, 180, 181, 


180, 204, 232, 235, 247, 269, 


489 


I02,,-105,0205,0213y 227,240, 2755 Achet- 
lian and Chellean stations in, I, 128; cul- 
tures of Africa represented by, I, 123. 

Ehringsdorf, I, 57, 81, 83, 141, 340-350, 433, 
435, II, 385, 391. 

Eighteenth Dynasty, II, 227. 

Eilsdorf, II, 90.* 

El Agar, II, 192; Amrah, II, 148; Gerzeh, 
ies ela et 7.oiViektarw lle nase rr Os 

Elam, chronology of, II, 50-51. 

Elamites, 1], 51. 

i basee leer as 

Elbe River, IJ, 211. 

Elder, II, 156. 

Elderberry, II, 156. 


' Electrum, II, 268. 


Elephant Bed, Norfolk, I, 106. 

Elephants, 3,18, 22, 52} 57, 314, 328; 372, 
Avewde2 ul ers. southern, ol 38) (52587345 
straight-tusked, I, 41*; woolly, I, 356, 396, 
413, 434; see also Elephas. 

Blephas; 1, 114; 274;* -272, 275; -413,° 433; 
antiquus, I, 39, 41,* 43, 46, 53, 54, 56, 
COS TIOA COS OT OO ehOO mw DLT .o 1 pas tas. 
116, 118, 125, 142, 275, 314, 320, 341, 
347, 414, 434; beds, I, 433; atlanticus, I, 
127; meridionalis, I, 39, 47, 53, 63, 86, 96, 
97, 98, 108, I09, 115, 434; primigentus, 
I, 43, 48, 52, 143, 180, 434; trogontherii, I, 
63, 81, 105, 115, 434. 

Rikon aay (275; 436, 1i,° at, 18, 60, 

Plott heal ear ye 

Elm, a; 39, 709, 1M 50-51, 157- 

Ely (Cambridgeshire), II, 212. 

Embroidery, II, 72, 92, 268. 

Emergences, II, 25. 

initia tio 

Emporium, fortified, ITI, 251. 

EBnamelouel ee2c2tao sas COT e260: 
279, 284. 

Eneolithic Epoch, II, 51, 

Engadine Valley, II, 218. 

Engelhardt, I, 86, Il, 145, 146. 

Engihoul, man of, I, 410. 

Engineering, Neolithic, II, 111,* 114. 

Engis (Liége), II, 305; man of, I, 409. 

England, I, 52, 54, 57, 63, 64, 65, 66, IT, 
30, 40, 153,055). 50,579 SS. 119,245, 1753 
177, 205, 264, 287, 288," -305, 434, 436; 
Acheulian in, I, 124, 125; Aurignacian in, 
I, 166, 167; chalk belt of, I, 92-97, 327; 
Chellean in, I, 124, 125; cultures of Europe 
represented by, I, 123; lake dwellers of, 
TI s68ie725) Macdalenianin, ol, 107, 201, 
203, 204; Mousterian in, I, 146; Paleolithic 
art in, II, 421; Paleolithic sites in, II, 315- 
323; Pre-Chellean in, I, 106-109;  pre- 
historic monuments in, II, 463-464; 
separation of, from continent, I, 65; 
transitional cultures in, II, 17. 

English Channel, I, 46, 63, 64, 66, II, 2rr. 

Engraving, I, 242, IT, 12,* 56, 57, 115,* 138, 
140,153, 155; 171, 172,)185, 188, 193,215, 
PMR UES eit, Sea Sieh Sri ei. eee ton 
253, 256, 276, 293, 397, 402, 409, 437; 
oldest, I, 214; I, Trois Frerés, I, 244, 428, 


273. 2755" 


FOP, iin NPTOG, sites 


459. 
Enléne (Ariége), I, 194, 244, II. 
Enns Valley, I, 34. 


Eoanthropus, I, 3, 435; dawsoni, I, 323-340. 


490 


Eocene, I, 2, 26, 63, 299; primates, I, 300, 
ZOl,mao2- 

Eolithic facies, I, 102; industry, I, 80, 81, 
109, 1393. period, -I, 25; °27, (84, 86,2162, 


434- 

Eoliths, I, 25, 89,* 95,* 97, 98,* 99,” 101, 102, 
327, 333, 433; chalk-mill, I, 90-92. 

Epaulettes, I, 392. 

Epochs, glacial, see Glacial Epochs. 

Epochs, interglacial, see Interglacial Epochs. 

Epone (Seine-et-Oise), II, 100, 165, 166. 

Equidae, I, 269, 270, 271-276; see also 
Equus. 

Equus, II, 154, 320, 324, 413, 414, 437, 438; 
caballus, I, 48, 142, 165, 180, 269, 368; 
caballus orientalis, II, 154; germanicus, I, 
347; hemionus, I, 165, 268; przewalski, I, 
174, 175,* 268; stenonis, I, 47, 53, 63, 81, 
98, 105, 109, 114, 116, 268, 434; Stenonis 
cocchi, I, 320. 

Erdeven, II, 129. 

Erech dynasty, II, 51. 

Ergolzwil, II, 157. 

Eriodes, I, 299. 

Er-Lanic, II, 124. 

Erratics, I, 33, 41, 54, II, 106-167, 462. 

Ervum lens, Il, 155. 

Erzerum, II, 178. 

Erzgebirge, I, 54. 

Eskimo, I, 192, Il, 176. 

Eskimoid characters, in Upper 
man; L407- 

Espelugues (Hautes—Pyrénées), I, 
273," 405. 

Espelunges, II, 172. 

Esperanga, La, II, 102. 

Essex, I, 95. 

Estavayer (Neuchatel), II, 72, 187. 

Este rien 1535) 242: 

Estelas, man of, I, 368. 

Estrecho de Santonje (Almeria), II, 450. 

Estremadura, II, 7. 

Btanaye ie ssa 

Etaples, I, 46, 64. 

Etruria, ell s1c2,.6 207.6 205e 

Etruscan Epoch, II, 229, 230; ware, II, 79. 

Etruscans, II, 179. 

Eu forest, I, 63. 

Eugenia decipiens, I, 315; jambolana, I, 315. 

Euphrates River and Valley, II, 142, 227. 

urasiasel e520 lyer Steet eae 

Eure-et-Loire, I, 106. 

Europe, I, 54, 56, 57; 76, II, 17-19, 30, 81, 
86, 95. 97, 99, 121, 123, 143, 148, 177, 
TSO,— 183, 204,) 205.8 206, 21 tec clo eear, 
242, 246, 248, 261, 294, 299, 304, 305, 
311, 313, 433, 436; Aurignacian in, I, 167— 
171; cultures of, “I, 123) 124; (Glacial “and 
post-Glacial, I; 67*; interglacial) Ip 557; 
Magdalenian in, I, 196-200; Mousterian 
in, I, 146-151; Paleolithic in, I, 258*; pile 
dwellings in, II, 67; transitional cultures 
ba AB ined eyes 

Evans, Sir John, I, 16, 18, 40, 52, 94, 100, 
112, 978; (206,220) 

Evil eye, charm against, II, 2709. 

Evolution, man’s organic, I, 294-298. 

Evreux, Normany, I, 9. 

Exchange, media of, II, 202, 208, 212, 251, 
277; see also Money. 


Paleolithic 


234," 


INDEX 


Experience, individual and racial, I, 4. 

Eyehole, needle, I, 154, 436. 

Eyes, on glass beads, I, 279. 

Eyzies, Les (Dordogne), I, 21,* 120,* 161,* 
172, 187," 235, 237, 245", 256, 260/262) 
291, 380, 398, 405, II, 138, 345-346, 428, 
461; map of caves and rock shelters near, 
I, 257*; Museum, II, 461. 


Fabrics, Neolithic knitted and netted, II, 92; 
woven, II, 45, 46. 

Fagus, I, 53; silvatica, II, 156, 157. 

Fajoles hill, I, 159, 160.* 

Falconer, Hugh, I, 16. 

Fallanden, II, 157. 

Faunas, Acheulian, I, 118, 434; arctic, I, 
39, 52, 69, 210; arctic-alpine, I, 47; Aurig- 
nacian, I, 165; Azilian, II, 7; Canstadt, 
I, 408; changes in, I, 38-42; Chapelle-aux- 
Saints, I, 361; Chellean, I, 116, 434; cold, I, 
165, 434, 435; Clichy, I, 413; Cro-Magnon, 
I, 435; Ehringsdorf, I, 346, 347; Equus, 
I, 210; Eurasiatic, I, 434; Gotiglacial, I, 
70; Grime’s Graves, II, 60; Gtinz and 
Gtinz-Mindel, I, 434; Hundsteig, I, 48; 
Krapina, I, 350; Langwith, I, 419; Mag- 
dalenian, I, 194; Maglemose, II, 11, 15; 
Malarnaud, I, 359; mammoth, I, 63, 110; 
migrations of, I, 52; Mindel, I, 434; 
molluscan, I, 70, 71; Mousterian, I, 132, 
141, 142, 143*; Moustier, I, 420; Naulette, 
I, 354; Neandertal, I, 435; Neolithic, II, 
21; northern, I, 45; Pech de 1’Aze, I, 368; 
Piltdown, 333; Pleistocene, I, 108; Plio- 
cene, I, 108; Pre-Chellean, I, 434; Quina, 
I, 363; Red Crag, I, 99; reindeer, I, 47, 
63, 110; Robenhausian, II, 46; Shara Osso 
Goh, I, 372; Solutrean, I, 180; southern, 
I, 109; Spiennes, II, 60; Spy, I, 356; 
steppe, I, 434; Stone Age, I, 434-435; sub- 
arctic, I, 70; Trinil, I, 3145> tundra, iyesos 
Upper Paleolithic, 436; warm, I, 39, 46, 47, 
48, 56, 64, 109, 341, 434. 

Faure, I 22m 

Faustkeil, I, 111. 

Fayraud, I, 368. 

Fayum, Egypt, I, 304. 

Features, human, on pottery, II, 39. 

Féaux, I, 4o1. 

Federsee, II, 72, 73. 

Fées, Les, II, 428. 

Fehmarn Belt, I, 71. 

Feichtenboden, II, 231. 

Feigneux (Oise), II, 166. 

Feldhofen, cave of, 351, 352.* 

Felines, 226, 239, 314; see also Felis. 

Felis, I, 269, 270, 276, 402, 438, catus, I, 
165, 194, 320; leo, I, 194; leo antiquus, I, 
116; lynx, I, 48, 165, 194; pardus, I, 48, 
180; spelaea, I, 48, 142, 165, 180, 320. 

Felsite, II, 66. 

Female figure, in art, 259,* 263,* 397, II, 
99*—100, 101,” 171%. 

Femora, I, 297; Mousterian, compared with 
that of modern man, I, 357.* 

Fenil (Vinelz), II, 66. 

Fenno-Scandia, Pleistocene history of, I, 66- 
72, 7A. 

Feré-en-Tardenois (Aisne), II, 9. 

Ferguson, II, 124, 127. 


INDEX 


Ferrasse, La (Dordogne), I, 139,* 141, 145, 
162, 177, 209, 435, II, 171, 346-347, 428, 
460, 462; man of, I, 357,* 360, 376,* 377.* 

Kerry, 1, 172, 176. 

Fertilizers, use of, II, 158. 

Fetish stones, I, 209. 

Fewkes, J. Walker, I, 12. 

Fiber, IJ, 92, 93. 

Fibrolite, II, 119. 

Fibulae, II, 186, 200, 201, 
aaa ge, 232, 235, 247, 252, 253, 
ieee 2 ene yo. 6 279," 299. 2Ba, 288"; 
bronze, II, 286; Certosa, II, 230, 2477; 
Hallstatian, II, 247*; iron, II, 283.* 

Ficus, I, 315. 

Field mouse, II, 60; vole, II, 60. 

Field Museum, Chicago, II, 148. 

Fifth Dynasty, II, 152, 153. 

Figuier (Garde), II, 347. 

Hig, 1,:40,°41. 

Figuier, Le (Ardéche), cave of, I, 177, II, 
347, 428. 

Figure stones, I, 208,* 209. 

Figures, anthropomorphic, I, 262; carved in 

bone or stone, I, 172; effigy, 208,* II, 75. 

Figurines, clay, II, 63, 90, 93,* 94; horse, 
Tl, 287; human, I, 396, 397, II, 90, 277. 

Filhol, i, 350. 

Finchampstead, I, 95. 

Fine arts, first appearance of, I, 210. 

Fingers, mutilation of, II, 172-174. 

Finiglacial stage, I, 67, 67,* 68, 70, 74. 

Finistére, II, 88,* 107, 114, 129, 181, 251, 462. 

Fire, 1370; complex, Il, 133, 134; first 
control of, II, 36; first production of, II, 
136-137; -making apparatus, II, 75, 138; 
-making contests, II, 138; Neolithic, II, 
138; sticks, II, 59; Stone Age, II, 134-139. 

Firing, of clay, II, 82-86, 158; of pottery, 
II, 39. 

Hits esos. 57. 

First Glacial Epoch, I, 52 60, 61, 84; dura- 
tion: of, 15.s1. 

First Interglacial Epoch, I, 49, 53, 84; dura- 
ton ot, 1, sr. 

Fischer, H., II, 159. 

Misueai, 242, 256,402, 422, II, 15, 24, 46; 
in Paleolithic art, I, 250, 269, 270, 271, 
280-284, 437, 438. 

Fish nets, II, 39, 141. 

Fish vertebrae, I, 392. 

Pisehicoks, 1, 201, 11, 12," 14, 15," 39, 141, 
250, 262, 263*; bronze, II, 75; Magda- 
lenian, I, 187*; origin of, II, 140. 

Fishing, II, 140-141, 262. 

Flagons, II, 246. 

Flagstones, I, 388. 

Flakes, I, 120, 122, 152; Acheulian, I, 120, 
392, II, 128; levallois, I, 118, 121,* 133, 
534, 136, 142. 

Biax, IT, 46, 92, 96,” 154, 155. 

Fléches a@ tranchant transversal, see Arrow- 
heads. 

Flensburg (Schleswig), II, 145. 

Putts i, 4, 11, 16, 25, 27, 81, 91,93, 98, 
Tor, 102, 158, 419, 433, II, 15, 95, 97, 
137, 142, 223; as article of commerce, II, 
mea, iso; blades, I, 103, 142, 388, 391, 
393, II, 13, 64, 223; blades, Audi type, I, 
161,* 165, 166"; Chatelperron type, I, 162,* 


203-204, 209, 


269, 


491 


165, 166*; blades with lateral notches, I, 
163*; chips, I, 386, 392, II, 57, see also 
Chipped flints; flakes, I, 154, 155, 180, 392, 
436, II, 26, 37, 48, 56; implements, I, 17,* 
40, 381, 384,* 386, 388, 394, 433, see also 
names of implements; mines, II, 52-61; 
nodules, I, 392; Pressigny, II, 64-66, 70, 
71, 159; production of fire by, I, 136, 137.* 

Flint Ridge, II, 60. 

Flints, chipped, see Chipped flints; Piltdown, 
I; 324, 327,°332, 435; Pre-Chelléan, I, 105; 
pygmy, II, 16; rostro-carinate, I, 98, 100.* 

Floats for fishing nets, II, 141. 

Floors, Acheulian, I, 118-121. 

Floras, arctic, I, 39, 40, 57, 69; changes in 
I, 37-42; Chellean, I, 116; Dryas, I, 70; 
Maglemose, II, 11, 15; Pliocene, I, 51-52; 
Robenhausian, II, 46; Trinil, I, 314, 315; 
warm, I, 40, 47. 

Florence Museum, I, 412. 

Florida, I, 192. 

Flouest, II, 234. 

Flounder, I, 281, 283, 438, II,” 140: 

Fliela pass, I, 49. 

Flurlingen, I, 57. 

Flutes, Neolithic bone, II, 140.* 

Fonde-de Forét (Liége), I, 140, II, 306. 

de Fondouce, Cazalis, I, 129, 284. 

Font (Neuchatel), II, 68,* 72, 154. 

Font-de-Gaume, I, 140, 217, 218, 221,* 223, 
2e4, aes; 4 1 220; 231," 12355 6237, b24t, 
248, 249, 254,* 255,* 262, 269, 272," 291, 
II, 429, 460. 

Font-Robert (Corréze), I, 164, 177*; points, 
T5275, 164, 1755 174, 170," 177. 

Font-Yves, La (Corréze), II, 347. 

Fontaine-le-Puis (Savoie), II, 222. 

Fontainebleau, Forest of, II, 66. 

Fontarnaud, I, 281, II, 429. 

Fonteney-le-Marmion (Calvados), II, 120. 

Fontes, J., I, 151. 

Fontvieille (Provence), II, 104, 120. 

Food, for dead, II, 281, 286; Neolithic, II, 
46, 140, I51, 153, 154-158; Paleolithic, 
IBN Seeyey. 

Forbes quarry, Gibraltar, I, 350, 351. 

Forceps, II, 262. 

Forchhammer, I, 13, II, 24. 

Forel, II, 222. 

Foresi, Raffaello, II, 142. 

Forest, Bed (Norfolk), I, 53, 97, 320. 

Forestian, Lower, I, 58, 60, 61, II, 8; upper, 
T, 58, 60, 61. 

Forestier, II, 149. 

Forests, buried, I, 39. 

Forges, II, 264.* 

Forges, Les, II, 348. 

Forks, II, 264. 

Forrer, II, 267. 

Forsyth Major, I, 412. 

Forth Valley, I, 57. 

Fortifications, II, 22, 462. 

Fossil man, see Man; reaction of, to mental 
stimuli, I, 5; reconstruction of, I, 379. 

Foudrignier, II, 286. 

Foundries, II, 262. 

Four de la Baume, La (Saéne-et-Loire), II, 
348. 

Fournet, Le (Dréme), II, 348. 

Fouron, II, 47. 


* 


492 


Fourth Glacial Epoch, I, 57, $9, 60, 84; 
duration of, 51. 

Fowl, domestic, II, 151, 152, 153-154. 

Fox, I, 176, 276, 361, 438, I, 46, 60, 97, 
T7IeATClC kms 2 aes Om DITe er lems O7. 

Foxhall> 1, o9o;s Halli vl407,89835 Road. L207. 

Foxhallian, I, 84. 

Fraas, I, 86. 

Fragaria vesca, II, 156. 

Fraipont, I, 354. 

France, 1,756,462, ,633164)66,-73,0142, 
253, 265, 268, 272, 273, 274, 275, 276, 
277 612705) (270 Me 2S0 Beco Ecos MESO OZ OURS 
302, 305, 434, 436, 438, II, 22, 26, 30, 
46, 53, 64, 67, 71, 88, 895; 98, 99, 105, 
106,) 1075) T2359 (235 230), a tAOp ase 153, 
159, 165, 167, 172, 183, 188, 189, 191, 
1902, 62045 205,1 207,027 8.) ll woot es eens 2s. 
224, 232, 236, 240," 245, 247, 248, 253, 
25 A257 os oO ee eee Oo ee Oh ESO. 
287, 294; Acheulian in, I, 125-126; Aurig- 
Nacianieinje Ll. 260. sLOOse \ziliatiein wy lees 
Chellean in, I, 125-126; cultures of Europe 
represented by, I, 123; Magdalenian in, 
I, 197, (202, (203, “204, - 20625 mining Sin, 
II, 58; Mousterian in, I, 146, 152; Neo- 
lithic of, II, 42-44, 63; Paleolithic art in, 
II, 422-443; Paleolithic sites in, II, 324- 
384. 

Pre-Chellean in, I, 105-106; prehistoric mon- 
uments in, II, 458-463, 464-478; transi- 
tional cultures in, II, 17. 

Pranchet,ClLlj277,. 83.705. 

Franconia (Bavaria), I, 20. 

Franks, Sir Wollaston, I, 18, 86. 

Frasinus excelsior, II, 157. 

Frauenfeld (Langdorf), II, 272. 

Frederickstad, II, 146. 

Prere,e johny. 1) o1740040; 

Frescos,. 1,923, %55,) r8s7-2127 0203) 1-738: 
Altamira.1; 212," 293)) 2t4)" | 255, eens 
218, 221; Paleolithic, I, 24*; polychrome, 
27s 

Frets, in Paleolithic art, I; 287: 

Freudental, man of, I, 40s, II, 457. 

Fréville pit, I, 112. 

Friedenthal, I, 294. 

Fringes, II, 45. 

Krogs i Lin2sa- 

Frontal, cave of, I, 412. 

Fruits, II, 4s. 

Fuente del Frances, La (Santander), II, 409. 

Funen, II, 37. 

Furstjohnneshohle (Moravia), II, 313. 

Buhirottiel, 3st 

Funeral offerings, II, 247. 

Furfooz (Namur), IT, 59, 137,* 138, 306, 354; 
man of, I, 412. 

Furnace, pottery, II, 83, 85. 

Furninka (Estremadura), II, 403. 


145, 


Gadus oeglefinus, II, 140. 

Gaillard de la Dionnerie, I, 283. 
Galaginae, I, 299. 

Galena, II, 180. 

Galet coloriés, see Pebbles, painted. 
Galilee, II, 48. 

Galley Hill, man of, I, 417. 
Galleys, antique, II, 144. 
Gallo-Roman Epoch, I, 176. 


INDEX 


Game, and art, I, 230, 250, 268, II, 264. 

Games, II, 364. 

Game-animal complex, II, 133. 

Gaming stones, I, 137. 

Gammaracanthus loricatus, I, 69. 

Garcibuey (Salamanca), II, 450. 

Gard, II, 90, “100,,a845e eeu 

Garda, Lake, II, 188, 200, 279. 

Garenne, La, Il, 234,° 235. 230, 244. 

Gargas (Hautes-Pyrénées), I, 178,* 243, 262, 
263, Il, 174, 348, 429, 460. 

Garonne Valley, I, 18, 126, II, 63. 

Gastaldi, I, 18. 

Gath; wc: 

Gaubert (Dordogne), I, 28s, II, 429. 

Gaudry, 1, .53, 87,085,611 2 ose 

Gaul, II; 180, 181, 204, 228; 220) 235, e4e- 
243, 251, 257, 264, 265, 267, 268, 274, 
287. 

Gaulois culture, II, 227. 

Gauntlets, archers’, II, 195. 

Gavechou (Charente), II, 349. 

Gayr’inis,, Il; yoyx,) 203; e113; ciate 

Gazella deperdita, I, 87. 

Gazelle, I, 152, 422; II, 4o. 

De Geer, Baron, I, 66, 74. 

Geikie, I, 28, 39, 41, 50, 52, 53, 54, 56, 57, 
fey Ske pdateny Lee, UL, fe) 

Gelie, La (Charente), II, 349. 

Gemeinlebarn (Hungary), II, 231, 246. 

Gendron, cave of, II, 106, 307. 

Geneva, Lake of, II, 69, 183, 187, 188; Mu- 
seum, II, 251. 

Geologic sciences, I, 430. 

Geometric industry, II, 9, 11; motives, II, 
220, 228, 220; 207,8200., 

Ger plateau, II, 121, 235. 

Gergovia (Puy-de-Dome), II, 251, 252. 

German East Africa, I, 422. 

Germany, I, 52, 56, 57, 58, 69, 72, 74, 123, 


I4I, 142, 145, 210, 266, 275, 277, 278; 
280, 305, 434, 436, 438, II, 22, 38, 67, 88, 
89, 90,* 98, 119, 121, 153, 177, 188, 211, 
225, 220, 230, 232, 236, 240, 2455 240, 
254, 265, 267, “274,58 281, 280Neeoyemeeous 


Acheulian in, I, 126; Aurignacian in, I, 
166, 170; Chellean in, I, 126; Magdalenian 
in, I, ro9, 202, 203, 205; Mowusterian’ in; 
I, 149, 153; Paleolithic art in, II, 443-444; 
Paleolithic sites in, IIT, 384-393; prehistoric 
monuments in, II, 464; transitional cul- 
tures in, II, 18. 

Gervais, I, 305. 

Gesichtsurnen, II, 267, 

Getulian group, I, 159, 195, 439. 

Gezer, IT, 48. 

Ghar Dalam (Malta), II, 4oo. 

Ghyvelde, Belgium, I, 47, 65. 

Gibbons, I, 294, 297, 299, 302,* 303,* 309, 
312. 

Gibraltar, I, 23, 56, 435, Il, 211; manson 
350-351, 377. 

Giesslingtal (Lower Austria), II, 302; man 
of, I, 399. 

Gilgamesh, II, 51. 

Gimon, II, 7. 

Girardot, I, 282. 

Giraux, II, 83. 

Girod, IT, 410. 

Gironde Valley, II, 191. 


INDEX 


Gisors, II, 67. 

Giubiasco, II, 232, 233.* 

Glacial epochs, Alpine, 35-38; correlation of, 
I, 59-62; duration of, 48, 51; of Scotland, 
I, 58-59. 

Glacial phenomena, I, 26. 

Glacial time, in Europe, I, 67.* 

Glaciation, I, 29-42. 

Glaciers, ancient, and chronology, I, 33; work 
of, I, 30-32. 

Glacio-lacustrine sub-stage, in North America, 
ES 62. 

Glamorganshire, I, 394. 

Glasgow, II, 143. 

(rides. 105 202, 205, 243," 246, 253, 271, =72, 
277; beads, II, 95, 98, 202, 205, 248, 253, 
279, 284, 288; blowing, II, 246; bracelets, 
tipeero- taallstattian, I, 231; La: Téne, II, 
279; pendants, II, 279; tubes, II, 185, 205; 
volcanic, II, 99. 

Glastonbury (Somerset), II, 72, 253, 275. 

Glazing of pottery, discovery of, II, 83. 

Gloucester, II, 288. 

Glutton, I, 56, 270, 276, 438. 

Goats, domestic, II, 35, 45, 151, 154; wild, I, 
239, 243; 268, 269, 271, 272, 279, 361, 392, 
ASSaelEO0,).755, 170) 228: 

Gobi, desert of, I, 174. 

Gcblet-form pottery, II, 88. 

Goblets, caliciform, II, 120; silver, II, 180. 

Godsted, II, 13, 15. 

Gohlitsch, II, 115,* 115. 

Géttweiger Verlehmungszone, I, 38. 

Goetze, II, 86, 87.* 

Goguet, I, 11. 

Gokstad ship burial, II, 146, 147. 

Gold, Il, 120, 175, 179-180, 183, 185, 197, 
204, 205, 215, 216, 217, 223, 227, 235, 249, 
SEO mwmeo ee 20S, 200, 271,..272, “284, 288; 
Hallstattian, II, 231, 248; plating of, II, 
205. 

Gomez-Moreno, II, 122. . 

Goose, 279, 438, II, 24; domestic, II, 153. 

Gorganovic-Kramberger, I, 349, 350. 

Gorge d’Enfer, II, 171, 349-350, 429. 

Gorge-Meillet, La (Marne), II, 257, 279, 
201. 

Gorges de 1’Areuse, I, 77. 

Gorilla, I, 294, 297, 298,* 299, 306,* 307, 
308," 312, 315. 

Gorizia, II, 232. 

Goti (Apuan Alps), II, 398. 

Gotiglacial stage, I, 67, 67,* 74; fauna of, 
Ez: 

Gotland, Sweden, II, 137.* 

Gouges, II, 188, 262. 

Gough’s cave, I, 414. 

Gourdan (Haute-Garonne), I, 194, 195, 226, 
240," 237, 259,, 262, 285,. 286, 4os, II, 
217,* 218, 350, 430; man of, I, 359. 

Gourds, II, 158. 

Geurnia,, IL, 220. 

Gower, cliffs of, I, 394. 

Gowland, II, 176, 178, 179, 182, 227. 

Goyet (Namur), II, 307, 420; man of, I, 412. 

Grachwil, II, 236, 239.* 

Graig-lwyd, II, 66. 

Grains, II, 35, 45; cultivation of, IT, 69. 

Grajas, Las (Granada), II, 451. 

Grand-Bruneval (Oise), I, 118, 121.* 


* 


493 


Grand-Pressigny (Indre-et-Loire), II, 64, 70, 
71, 159. 

Grande Cité, La, II, 187. 

Grande-Gave (Savoie), II, 351. 

Grange, La, II, 351. 

Granite; II, 60, 114; 252. 

Grape, II, 154, 156, 281. 

Grattoirs carénés, I, 162; Tartés, I, 163. 

Grauholz, II, 236. 

Gravels, I, 19, 33; fluvio-glacial, I, 58; 
Gunz, I, 47; Lower, Middle, and Upper, 
I, 44; Mindel, I, 47; Pre-Chellean, I, 46; 
Riss Le 47 sarivect, 40,141 3 .terrace, 1, 
47, 105, 109. 

Gravers, 1, 27, 103,133,143, 154,°165) 180, 
TORS Aes 7te LL eos eeAUTenactatios is 
165*; busked, I, 163, 165; hooked, I, 190; 
Jateral, J) 162, 163, 165; median, I, 163; 
165; parrot-beak, I, 190, 192. 

Graver-scraper, Chellean, I, 113.* 

Graves, 11, 90; flat, Il, 232; individual, IT, 
23, 365, passage, I, %30, 74, 11, 88, 113,” 
Lise TO} Tl 20 suena T22 7 eStome ns Ll, 


23, 28-42; Stone Age, II, 209; see also 
Burials. 

Gravette blades, I, 165, 166,* 174; points, 
163. 


Gray, Hy St. G, Il; 128. 

Grayhounds, II, 152. 

Gray’s Inn Lane, London, I, 17,* 18. 

Greco-Oriental influence, II, 241, 242, 243. 

Grecques, see Frets. 

Greece, I, 305, II, 159, 176, 182, 183, 204, 
DO), Blin Avis eto), 

Greek Epoch, II, 243; influence, II, 241,* 
243; workmanship, II, 234. 

Greeks, II, 78, 256. 

Green Island (La Motte), II, 108. 

Greenland, I, 57, Il, 176. 

Greenwell, Canon, II, 56, 287, 288. 

Gregory, I, 305. 

Greifensee, II, 155. 

Creme 1s 154, 0572 

Grenelle (Paris), I, 158, II, 35; man of, I, 
414. 

Gréze, La, I, 214, II, 430. 

Griffon heads, II, 234. 

Grimaldi, I, 23; 141, 155, 164, 179,* 211,* 
254, 256, 262,* 282, 407, II, 140, 396-398; 
man of, I, 158, 385-394, 405, II, 202, 
295. 

Grime’s Graves, II, 52, 54, 60, 155-156, 464. 

Grimston Road, II, 58. 

Grinding stones, I, 157. 

Grinnell, G. B. II, 173. 

Gritstone, II, 66. 

Grizzly bears, II, 60. 

(GEOSSSINV aL U2 25 250. 

Grosse Ofnet, II, 292. 

Grosselet, I, 146. 

Grossgartach, II, 61, 62-63, 73. 

Grotte de Bounais, II, 120; de la Source, 
II, 120; de l’Eglise, I, 179*; des Boeufs, 
I, 256, 282, 283; des Enfants, 1,’ 386, 
390,* 405; des Fées, I, 162, 354, 405, II, 
104, 120; des Harpons, I, 195, 256, 283, 
II, 17; des Hommes, I, 405; des Rideaux, 
I, 256; du Castellet, II, 120; du Cavillon, 
I, 390, 391,* 392; du Coléoptére, I, 285, 438; 
du Pape, I, 227,* 228,* 260*; du Poisson, 


494 


I, 283, II, 438; du Roc, II, 374, 439; du- 
Trilobite, I, 285; Murée, I, 3509. 

Grouse, I, 279, 280, 438, II, 170. 

Gruebgraben (Lower Austria), II, 302. 

Gschnitz stage, I, 37, 49, 60, 84. 

Gschnitz-Daun period, I, 60. 

Guadalajara, II, 235: 

Gudenus (Lower Austria), I, 
419. 

Gunz ‘Glacialy Epoch) 1)7307051,5152. 00m OT, 
84; fauna of, I, 434. 

Giinz-Mindel Interglacial Epoch, I, 36, 39, 
53, 60, 61, 84, 97, 433; fauna of, I, 434. 

Guiffrida-Ruggeri, I, 335, II, 297. 

Guillon, Ch., J, 402. 

Guinea pig, II, 151. 

Gulo borealis, I, 48, 165, 180. 

Gundestrup vase, IJ, 260,* 261,* 262.* 

Gundestrupgaard, II, 33.* 

Guti supremacy, II, 51. 

Gypsum, II, 9s. 


rips VU sxe 


Habitations, I, 432; Bronze Age, II, 186-188; 
Hallstattian, II, 236-238; Iron Age, II, 
236-238; La Téne, II, 251; Neolithic, II, 
61-64, 67-69, 72-75, 108; Solutrean, I, 173. 

Hacais®Pen, Vi,-125- 

Hadersdorf, II, 231. 

Hadropithecus, I, 299. 

Hagia Triada, II, 220. 

Hahne,si,01, sll er 57. 

Haida Indians, II, 173. 

Hainaut, II, 153. 

Haidhausen, I, 34. 

Haine Valley, I, 106. 

Hairpins, II, 247. 

Hakpen Hill, II, 125. 

Halberds? 1, 193, %193;* 

Hall il; 2272 

Halland, II, 197. 

Halling, man of, I, 395-396. 

Hallstatt, 1I, 74, 75, 236-238, 248. 

Hallstatt Epoch, I, 27; II, 37, 59, 121, 153, 
183, 227, 229,* 230-250, 264, 296; burials 
in, II, 230-236; clothing and ornaments in, 
II, 246-250; phases of, II, 232; stations 
of, in Europe, II, 232. 

Hamal-Nandrin, I, 438, II, 47, 55. 


Hammers, II, 23, 38, 47, 54, 192; amber, 
II, 159; perforated, II, 45. 
Hammerstones, I, 91, 101, 106, I12, 133, 


157,* 158, 159; II, 9, 56, 57, 59, 60, 66, 
128. 

Hammurabi, II, 51. 

Hampel, II, 217. 

Hampshire, I, 95, 96, 97, 327- 

Hamster, II, 60. 

Hamy, I, 407, 408, 409, 410, 412, 413, 414, 
II, 296. 

Hand, human, I, 3, II, 115; in Paleolithic 
art, I, 242, II, 172-174, 262-270.* 

Hand-ax el 25, ennrs 

Hand mills, II, 108, 265, 267.* 

Hapale, I, 299. 

Hapalidae, I, 299, 307, 309. 

Harajel, II, 47. 

Hardy, I, got. 

Hare, I, 268, 276, 438, II, 60, 242, 281; 
IAT CtIiCn alaer4loe 

Harlé, 1, 357. 


INDEX 


Harness, II, 153, 188, 258*; trappings, II, 
282,* 287, 288; see also Bridles. 

Harpons, Les, II, 430. 

Harpoons, J, 155, 185, 256, 281, 291, II, 
53° 9, t2,* 72, 139, 141, 200, 262, 263*; 
bone, II, 8, 11; copper, II, 227; evolu- 
tion of, I, 186-190, 191*; Magdalenian, I, 
201-202, reindeer horn, I, 27, 188, 436; 
staghorn, I, 27, 1I,a1) 58. 

Harrison, Benjamin, I, 92, 94. 

Harz Mts., I, 20, 54, II, 89, 90.* 

Hastiére (Namur) I, 159, II, 307. 

Hatchets, I, 10, II, 26, 27, 35, 46, 75; see 
also Axes, 

Haug, I, 47. 

Haughton, I, 424. 

Haulzy, II, 269,* 273.* 

Hauser, I, 137,0-3560, 
17s AGi. 

Haussiéres (Aude), IIT, 9. 

Hauteroche (Charente), II, 351. 

Haute-Saone, II, 235. 

Hautes-Fagnes Plateau, I, 100, 101. 

Hawk, II, 181. 

Hawthorne, I, 39. 

Haynes, Henry, I, 128. 

Haza, La (Santander), II, 451. 

Hazel, I, 70, 116, 11, 15; 

Hazelnut, II, 156. 

Heads, types of, II, 291-296. 

Healing, II, 22, 160-167, 210, 216. 

Hearing, I, 2, 4. 

Hearths, I, 142, 152, 174, 175, 176, 359, 
381, 386, 387, 388, 391, 400, 419, II, 2s, 
44, 48, 56, 63, 83; Aurignacian, 1) aye 
earliest, II, 136; Paleolithic, I, 43; primi- 
tive, II, 243; utensils for, II, 264. 

Heating stones, II, 48. 

Hébert, I, 410. 

Hebrew culture, II, 49. 

Hebrews, II, 50. 

Hebron, II, 49. 

Hedds 3: 

Hedgehog, II, 46. 

Heel, changes in axis of, I, 377.* 

Heer, II, 154. 

Heidelberg, I, 53, 435; man of, I, 56, 83, 
313, 319-322, 337," 344, 366.” 

Heierli, II, 46, 83, 222. 

Heilbronn, II, 61. 

Heimenlachen, II, 157. 

Helie sand pit, I, 414. 

Helin (Hainaut), II, 308. 

Helix hispida, I, 42; nemoralis, II, 58. 

Helmets, II, 193, 195, 217, 260; La Téne, 
II, 255-257. 

Helsinborg, II, 215. 

Hérault, II, 99, 100, 221. 

Hercules, II, 262.* 

Herdsmen, Neolithic, II, 277. 

Herm, L’ (Ariége), II, 352. 

Hernandez-Pacheco, I, 140, 358. 

Herrerias, Las (Oviedo), II, 451. 

Herring, II, 24, 140. 

Hervé, I, 408. 

Hesbaye villages, II, 61. 

Hesiod, I, 9. 

Hesperopithecus, I, 311. 

Heys, I, 417. 

High Lodge (Suffolk), II, 318. 


383, 384,* 385, 346, 


INDEX 


High Wycombe, II, 58. 

Hildebrand, I, 51, II, 250. 

Hinds, 1, 214," 215," 283, 290, I, 57, 171. 

Hinkelstein, II, 108. 

Hipparion, I, 98; gracile, I, 87. 

Hippopotamus, I, 38, 52, 53, 54, 56, 98, 125, 
142, 324, 328, 314, 410, 414, 422, 434; 
amphibius, I, 53, 110, 1273 major, I, 53, 63, 
65, S1,.105, 116. 

Hissarlik, II, 218. 

Hittites, II, 51. 

Hizmeh, II, 49. 

Hjortspring, II, 146. 

Hoards, II, 188-192. 

Hoare, R. C., Il, 125, 2202 

Hobbs, I, 43. 

Hochfelden, I, 45. 

Hochkonig, I, 49. 

Hochterrasse, I, 47. 

Hochterrassenschotter, I, 34, 47. 

Hoegild (Jutland), II, 137.* 

Hoéermes sb 87, 231, 419. 

Hoes, 11,1187. 

Hogs, II, 35; domestic, II, 151, 152. 

Hogue; La; -11,.) 220. 

Hohenzollern, II, 236. 

Hohlefels (Wirttemberg), II, 388; man of, 
Te 425. 

Holheim, II, 292. 

Holland, I, 53, Il, 46, 55, 88, 121, 197. 

Hollriegelsgereuth, I, 36. 

Holmegaard, II, 14. 

Holmes, W. H., II, 61. 

Holocene, I, 26, 80, 84. 

Holst, I, 72. 

Homer, II, 153. 

Homes, permanency given to by fire, II, 138. 

Hominidae, 1, 310, 311, 313, 316, 329. 

Homme, L’ Grotte de, II, 352. 

Homo, I, 269, 270, 271, 302, 308, 319; al- 
pinus, II, 293, 294, 297; aurignacensis, I, 
312, 313; a@urignacensis hauseri, I, 385; 
birth of, I, 431; capensis, I, 424; daw- 
sont, I, 335; heidelbergensis, I, 83, 319- 
322, 338; in Paleolithic art, I, 438; javen- 
sis, I, 318; mediterraneus, II, 294, 295, 
296, 297; mousteriensis, I, 385; neander- 
talensis, I, 3, 23, 312, 313, 339, 350-379, 
435; nordicus, II, 295, 296, 297; primi- 
genius, I, 346, 350; relation of, to Pithe- 
canthropus, I, 435; rhodesiensis, I, 3; 
sapiens, I, 3, 158, 310, 313, 330,* 353; 
405, 418, Il, 292. 

Homunculus, I, 299; patagonicus, I, 302. 

Honey bees, II, 154. 

Hopewell township, II, 60. 

Hordeum distichon, II, 155; vulgare, II, 155. 

Horn, II, 97; pendants, II, 72; see also 
Staghorn. 

Hornbeam, II, 157. 

Hornos de la Pefia (Santander), I, 243, 262, 
272, 287, II, 409, 451. 

Horns, symbolic, II, 75. 

aatee, is 44, 52, 63, 81, 111, 118, 125,147, 
173, 174, 175, 194, 210, 215,* 217, 220,* 
222,* 224, 229,* 231,* 233,* 237," 239, 242," 
243, 248,* 250," 251,* 256, 268, 269, 270, 
271,* 272, 273, 276, 284, 320, 346, 356, 
361, 363, 367, 368, 372, 394, 396, 403, 
404, 410, 412, 413, 415, 434, 435, II, 60, 


495 


97; 187i 170, 371, (172, 214," 215,216, 
220, 221, 228, 250, 277, 263; 267; complex, 
Thy 133; . domesticated, > 1i; 35; 7133, 11513, 
152, 154; in Paleolithic art, I, 437-438; 
in ship burials, II, 146; magma, I, 398; 
Przewalski, I, 175*; three-toed, I, 98; see 
also Equus. 

Horseshoes, I, 80. 

Hoteaux, Les (Ain), II, 352, 430; man of, 
ee A022. 

Hottentot type, in Paleolithic art, I, 254. 

Hottentots, II, 172. 

Hotting breccia, I, 41, 43. 

Hourdel, I, 65. 

House urns, II, 89, 90.* 

Houses, La Téne, II, 251~252; Neolithic, II, 
62*; palisade type, II, 37; pile type, II, 
67, 68, 69; see also Habitations. 

Hoxne (Suffolk), I, 17, 40, II, 318. 

Hradisko, rock of, I, 396, 397. 

Hrastje, II, 232. 

Hrdli¢ka, I, 318. 

Shea Ih Pies 

Human body, modification of, for erect pos- 
ture, I, 294-2098. 

Human form, in Paleolithic art, I, 252, 253- 
267. 

Human hands, I, 3, IJ, 115; in Paleolithic 
Att memo 2a Pet 21 Ano O25 2708 

Human history, Pleistocene, of Fenno-Scan- 
oh hoe Gath. 

von Humboldt, A., IT, 200. 

Hundisburg (Saxony), II, 386. 

Hundsteig, loess fauna of, I, 48. 

Hungary, I, 20, 142, 145, II, 159, 177, 183, 
188, 217, 230, 232, 246, 251, 253, 254, 
262, 286, 296; Aurignacian in, I, 166, 170; 
Magdalenian in, I, 199, 206; Mousterian 
in, I, 150; Paleolithic sites in, II, 393-395. 

Hunsbury (Northampton), II, 254, 265. 

Hunter, J., 1,. 3,339. 

Hunting wl Sri, 154,155; 193, 2260,- 11, 273, 
262*; Bronze Age, II, 139; Chellean, I, 
114; Mousterian, I, 138; Neolithic, II, 
139-140; Paleolithic, I, 43, 139, 170, 270, 
277, 436; Pre-Chellean I, 114; Stone Age, 
IMG rae Xos 

Hurd Deeps, I, 63. 

Hurons, II, 158. 

Huts; I]) 61, 63; 90, 237. 

Hvidegard, II, 216. 

Hyaena spelaea, I, 48, 116, 142, 143, 165, 
386. 

Hyena, I, 22, 39, 56, 152, 176, 192, 194,* 
239, 251, 277, 314, 400, 438, II, 170; cave, 
see Cave hyena. 

Hycksos, II, 150. 

Hylobates, 299, 302,* 303,* 309. 


TL Bocciars, Ils 227: 

Iberian Peninsula, II, 102, 121, 204, 294. 

Ibero-Maurusian group, of Capsian, I, 159. 

Whextel 682s 575° 70) LL OO. 

Ice Age, I, 26, 29-85, 432, 433; chronology 
of, I, 76-84; duration of, I, 48, 50-51; 
see also Pleistocene. 

Ice sheets, maximum extent of, I, 62. 

Iceland, I, 55.* 

Idothea entomon, I, 69. 

fdstas lt lse262; 


4906 INDEX 


Ightham, I, 94. 

Illinoian Epoch, I, 51, 56, 61. 

Ilm Valley, I, 340. 

Imola, I, 18. 

Imperial Roman Epoch, II, 246. 

Implements, Acheulian, I, 41, 113, 118,* 120, 
121,* 122,* 128, 129; agricultural, II, 265; 
amygdaloid, I, 110; Aurignacian, I, 160- 
165, 386; Azilian, II, 5, 8; bone, I, 391; 
Campignian, II, 44; Chellean, I, 46, 56, 
110-116, 118,* 121, 128, 129; chipped stone, 
1. res) 28, 700, 11°23 ne, disk-shaped, 
I, 111, 117; East Anglia, I, 98*; Ehrings- 
dorf, I, 345°3 flint, I, 20, 27, 49, 90,* 933 
381, 384,* 386, 388, 394, 397, 436, HL, 
69, 70; hafted, II, 68*;. jasper, I, 397; 
kitchen-midden, II, 15,* 25, 26-27; lanceo- 
late, I, 177; Levallois, I, 118, 121*; lime- 
stone, I, 116,* 386.) 11, 77,95; © Magda- 
lenian, I, 185-194, 402, 409; Maglemose, 
Il, 11, 12,* 13=153; Mousterian, 15°45, 103, 
138," 130;") 962, 7368; “4075 a Neolthicm 1 
414, IT; 21, 23, 25, 26-28, 36-39, 40-42, 
43; of goat vertebrae, II, 75; Paleo: 
lithic; 5°10; '\/25,.40,.93,) -2033-Laltdown, 
I, 106, 107,*° 108*3° Pliocene; 1, 98*; pol- 
ished stone, I, 25, 27, 156-157, Il, 21, 62, 
63; 1103" Pre-Chellean,’ Ty\204;- e105, 1006, 
TOO, 1LSss quartzite, el, er iSeem Torn mes OO 
rostro-carinate, I, 100*; slug-shaped, II, 
138; Solutrean, 1, 174, 177-180; Spy, I, 
356; stone, I, 15, 18; -Tardenoisian, II, 
9-10; wooden, I, 433, 11, 15. 

hnst sla. 

Inanimate objects, in Paleolithic art, I, 250, 
285-292. 

Incas, Il, 107,60 163j164: 

Inemeration, Ul "22, 9103," 203, 160;6 22202235 
224, 228, 229," 230, 231, 235, 242, 244, 
286, 288,* 296. 

Ihaeber Ma ews adage) JOR, tly GS BOR Wiel, LANs, 
123, 178, 181, 182; Acheulian and Cheli- 
lean in, I, 128; cultures of Asia repre- 
sented by, I, 123; Magdalenian in, I, 2o1. 

Indians, North American, II, 158, 173. 

Indo-China dee 12304 34cm lens 

Indo-Malaysia, I, 307. 

Industry, Acheulian, I, 47, 64, 80, 81, 83, 
110, 433; Aurignacian, I, 65, 81; bone, 138, 
163; bronze, I, 65, see Bronze Age; Chel- 
lean; I, 80, Si err ria icolithic,  laecor 
81, 109, 139; Magdalenian, I, 49, 65; Mic- 
oque, I, 150; Mousterian, I, 57, 64, 65, 66, 
76, 80, OL, 110, TAt, 150; MNeolithicys Lesa. 
Pre-Chellean, I, 105; Solutrean, I, 65, 180. 

Infernet, L’, Garonne Valley, I, 18. 

Ingolstadt, II; 252. 

Ingon Valley, I, 66. 

Ingots} lIss103, 27ros) bronze: eb sce cop- 
per, Li; 2zos;sgold, Il) 170) 180; 1r0on,e Ls, 
2270 225.5 

Inn) Valley; 1,, 37: 

Innsbruck, I, 37, 38, 41: 

Insectivores, I, 2, 301. 

Insignia, military, II, 250. 

Interglacial epochs, I, 36, 38, 47, 124; .dura- 
tion of, I, 48; in Europe, 1, ss*; in Scot- 
land, I, 58; mean of, I, 340-350; phases of, 
iL ey 

Intrenchments, I, 80. 


Invention, human, II, 133. 

Invertebrates, domestication of, II, 154; in 
Paleolithic art, I, 285, 438. 

Iowan Epoch, I, 51, 57, 61. 

Ipswich, I, 99, 100, II, 319; Bolton brickfield, 
I, 97; man of, I, 368, 420. 

Ipswichian, I, 84. 

Ireland, II, 33, 69, 102, 12%, 177.) 1oeasmenae 
186, 102) 204,524 t.eaon. 

Irkutsk, I, 4309. 

Iron, II, 121, 175, 176, 181-183, 227-200, 
see also Iron Age. 

lron Age, I, 9, 13, 27, 71, 745 2375 tee 
48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 56, 61, 63, 68, 72, 745 
90, 137," ‘144; 153, 1545) 157s 10 1,utaee 
188, 195, 218, 227-290, 234, 9249, 20a) 
262, 277, 285, 201; boats of, sly aaz-0e 
mate of, I, 72; dates of, I, 76; habita- 
tions of, II, 236-238. 

Irrigations Lin sens. 

Isté 1d Views igetyee 

Isle of Wight, I, 65. 

Isocardia clay, I, 73. 

Israelite culture, II, 49. 

Istallosk6 (Biikk Mts.), II, 393. 

Fstria, Il, 242; 

Isturitz, 282, II, 353, 430; man of, I, 368. 

Italy, I, 53, 54, 57, 73, 123, 141, 145, 195, 
277, 280, 305, 412, 434, 438, .439, II, 53, 
61, 65, 67, 121, 142, 153, 159, 177, 179, 
180, 182,186, 188) ©200,. 204.) 205 emeous 
228, 231, 234, 240, 241, 242, 243, 252, 
254, 256, 20601, 266, 277.9201, 62O4y enue 
Acheulian in, I, 126; Aurignacian in, I, 
166, 170; Chellean in, I, 126; Magdalenian 
in, I, 199, 203; Mousterian in, I, 153, 159; 
Paleolithic art in, II, 444-445; Paleolithic 
sites in, II, 395-399. 

Ivory, I, 20, 97, 103, 154, 155, 156, 162, 163, 
174, 193, 194,* 204, 205, 200, (att, ana 
228,* 230, 232, 256, 292, 394, 396, 397, 398, 
436, 438, II, 92, 133, 170, 235, 248, 274. 


Jablanicaysl hor. 

Jacques, II, 2095. 

Jade; ID, 118;) eRe: 

Jadeité, ll, 46472795, eno0s serio: 

Jaeger, I, 408. 

Jaipur, I], 178: 

Jalon River, II, 235. 

Jankovich (Bikk Mts.), II, 394, 444. 

Janville, II, 64. 

Japan, I, 26, 123, 176," 2B3,0434, 

Jars; LE 275630" 

Jasper, I, 350, 397. 

Jassy, Rumania, II, 90, 93,* 194. 

Java, l,4783 

Javelin points,.I, 155, 183, 256, 435, 11, 216, 
decorated, I, 236*; Magdalenian, I, 188.* 

Javelin shaft, I, 155. 

Javelins, II, 13, 139, 219, 235, 281; evoltu- 
tion of, 1, 27; Lashenemiieeesae 

Jaw, Bafiolas, I, 358; Chapelle-aux-Saints, 
I, 344, 362; Heidelberg, I, 319-322; 
Krapina, I, 344, 347,* 348,* 340%; Pilt- 
down, I, 324, 325, 326,* 328, 331, 334, 335, 
336, 337,* 338, 339; Weimar, I, 341-348. 

Jean-Blancs, I, 185, II, 339, 425. 

Jean-Louis (Gard), II, 338, 425. 

Jericho, II, 4g. 


—— 


INDEX 


Jersey, II, 108, 436; drift, I, 52; man of, I, 
368. 

Jerseyan Epoch, I, 51, 52, 61. 

Jerusalem, II, 48, 49. 

Jessen, K., II, 12. 

sett, art, Vil: os, 271. 

Jezerine, Bosnia, II, 279. 

Jiména (Jaén), II, 451. 

ifonanserts olf, 125 13, 14. 

Jobnson, J. P., I, ‘128. 

Jaly,e John, I, 28. 

Jones, Rupert, I, 92. 

Jordansmuhl, II, 159. 

Judas tree, I, 4o. 

Juglans bergamensis, I, 53; regia, II, 156. 

Waigoslavia, |, r41,, 145, Ll, 61, 63, 90, 400; 
Aurignacian in, I, 170; Mousterian in, I, 
150. 

Julien, I, 392. 

Juitas DiS .677 235. 

Justice, La (Seine-et-Marne), II, 107. 

Justice, La (Seine-et-Oise), II, 119, 165. 

Wea ige rey s, Ll, 15, 137,* 200, 201, 
ORME SD & eee se 


Kabyl, II, 83. 

Kaltbriinn (Baden), II, 248. 

Kansan Epoch, I, 51, 54, 61. 

Kaposyar, II, 262. 

Karadagh, II, 182. 

Karlstein, II, 252. 

Kartstein, I, 142, II, 386. 

Kastel, II, 2709. 

Kastelhang (Bavaria), II, 387. 

Keewatin field, I, 54, 56, 62. 

Keith, I, 313, 318, 329, 368, 412, 414, 416, 
418, 422. 

Kelch Alp, I, 49. 

Keller eis a4, 15 -F4t,, 142, 247. 

Kelvin, Lord, I, 28. 

Kent, I, 395, 417, 419, Il, 288. 

Kent's; Gavern, i Tj-20,/ Il, 321. 

Kerlescan, II, 124, 129. 

Wermario, Il; r2o. 

Kertsch (Crimea), II, 279. 

Kerveresse, II, 118.* 

Kessleroch, cave of, I, 229,* II, 171, 416, 
457- 

Keys, II, 262-264. 

Khorasan, II, 179. 

Khorsabad, II, 181, 227. 

Kiel Museum, II, 145. 

Kilham, II, 288. 

King’s Barrow sepulture, II, 287. 

Kingsdown, I, 94. 

Kingston Deverill (Wiltshire), II, 2rr. 

Kirkcudbright, II, 9. 

Kirmington (Lincolnshire), I, 39. 

Kish dynasties, II, 51. 

Kiskevély (Budapest), II, 394. 

Kitchen-midden epoch, II, 11, 23, 24-27. 

Kitchen middens, I, 72, 73, 74, Il, 17, 18; 
294; implements in, II, 15*; Neolithic, IT, 
140. 

Kitzbihel, I, 4o. 

Kivik, II, 221.* 

Klaatsch, I, 87, 88, 312, 359, 360, 384-385, 


425. 
Klakari (Bosnia), II, go. 


Lagopus albus, I, 48, 180, 


497 


Klause (Bavaria, I, 142, 349, II, 7, 387-388, 
443; man of, I, 399. 

Knitting, II, 92. 

Kiives i, 1049n1 005, LIT, )1t7,. £33,145) 5055, 
159, 161, II, 23, 37, 48, 75, 105, 139, 176, 
TSS, loo dOO.. elO2 milOOnm 244 6205-62004 
Acheulian, I, 121*; bronze, II, 224; carv- 
ing, II, 280,* 281; Chellean, I, 112*; chop- 
ping, I, 106; copper, II, 178; Hallstattian, 
II, 244; handles of, II, 14; iron, II, 182, 
260—-262.parings I 72) 134, Ll) 5: 11,) 26, 
44, 45,* 47, 66, 262, 266*; Pre-Chellean, I, 
TOS, lise Nranitig | LeesOO. 

Knossos, II, 52, 178. 

Knotweed, II, 156. 

Kossina, II, 279. 

Kostilek (Moravia), II, 420. 

Kourganes, II, 295. 

erate ak ors: 11, 92: 

Kragehul (Fénen), II, 137.* 

Krapina (Croatia), I, 141, 347,* 349-350, 
435, II, 400; man of, I, 344, 348,* 349.* 

Krems, I, 48. 

Kriz ee 262 sO 7s 

Krokowski, I, 150. 

Kufstein, I, 37. 

Kulna (Moravia), II, 313, 412. 

Kunze Ge Be Liserso: 


La Téne Epoch, I, 27, II, 227, 231, 234, 
236, 238, 241,* 243, 250-288; culture of, 
II, 281; type station of, II, 250—251,=255, 
257, 258,* 264, 265, 274. 

Labor, division of, II, 21. 

Labrador field, I, 57, 62. 

Labriessl 2a, 

Lacave, I, 191, II, 353, 430. 

Laconias) erst: 

Lacoste, II, 354, 431. 

Ladornes, Los (Cadiz), II, 455. 

Ladriére, I, 44, 45. 

Ladybug, I, 285. 

Laganne, Dr., I, 381. 

Lagomys pusillus, I, 194. 

194; alpinus, I, 
180, 194. 

Lagore, Ireland, I, 14. 

Lahr, man of, I, 408. 

Laibach (Carniola), II, 87, 95, 140. 

Laizé (Maconnais), II, 66. 

Lake dwellings: Ifiza4;*' 40; 11; 14; 28. 45; 
46, 66, 92, 98-99, 141, 142, 151, 155, 187— 
188, 207, 462; Neolithic; II, 67-75. 

Lake Superior district, II, 176; copper of, 
1 Gres at 

Lake villages, II, 22, 45, 46, 154. 

Lake (Wiltshire), II, 210, 211. 

Lakes, I, 33. 

Lalande, I, 400. 

Lalanne,) II, 17: 

Lamps, II, 55, 56, 57, 593 
SAR a2 5Oe ler so: 

Lance heads, II, 75, 176, 279, 283.* 

Lances,) LLas 188.1192 103.9) 109, 2100 2 20; 
236, 241, 251, 254, 255," 281. 

Land bridges, I, 55,* 56, 58, 69; elevations, 
1, S8y FE) F250 735 74s 1,11) habitations; 
Neolithic, II, 61-67. 

Langeais, Il, 65. 

Langstrup, II, 189,* 191. 


Stoners less, 


498 


Langue de chat, I, 110. 

Langugest, II, 285. 

Langwith (Derbyshire), II, 321; man of, I, 
419. 

Lankester, I, 98, 327, 334. 

Larnaudian Epoch, II, 184. 

Martet. Edoudardsal mosses i.e SOs T00,mel 72. 
184, I91, 192, 213, 282, 283, 284, 304, 
Ano, lio e138sicous, 1, 038159- 5382.0 941 0- 

Lascave, I, 193. 

Late Glacial time in Fenno-Scandia, I, 66-70. 

Lattrigen, II, 154. 

Laufen stage, I, 37, 59, 60, 61, 84. 

Laugerie-Basse (Dordogne), I, 187,* 192, 
194, 195," 249, 256," 260, 262, 269, 285, 
438, II, 141, 171, 218, 354-355, 431, 458, 
A61, 402semanotei, 400.84 One 

Laugerie-Haute (Dordogne), I, 172, 178,* 
179,* 185, 192," 225, 245," 11, 7,355, 4915 
458; man of, I, 399. 

Laughlin’s brickfield, I, 97. 

Watrelel A041. 

Laurel-leaf, points, J,°27, 172, °175;2177; 279; 
179, 180, 183, 409, 437. 

Laurion, II, 176, 181. 

Lausanne, II, 69, 95, 295; Museum at, II, 
192, 247. 

Laussel (Dordogne), I, 141, 155, 164, 177, 
i85, 234," 254, 201," 264,% 267,.- 407 al 5, 
171, 356, 431, 458. 

Lauterbrunnen, Valley of, I, 32, 34.* 

Lautsch (Moravia), II, 313. 

Lavaderos de Tello (Almeria), II, 451. 

Laville, I, go. 

Lavindsgaard, II, 217. 

Layon, caves of, II, 65. 

Lead, isi18t, 2056 

Leather, II, 200, 216, 247, 248, 257, 271. 

ie) Bel; MM.) Tl;) 461, “462: 

Leclercq pit, I, 105. 

Leffe, I, 53. 

Legends, I, 4. 

Leipzig, I, 83. 

Lemmings, I, 56, 210, 410. 

Lemozi, \Abbé, I, 241, 242. 

Lemuroids, I, 2. 

Lemurs, I, 299, 300,* 301, 305-306. 

Lentils) TE ass. 

Lepjoschkina (Yenesei), II, 40s. 

Lepus, I, 420; cuniculus, I, 118, 181; timi- 
dus, I, 48; variabilis, I, 48, 165, 180, 194. 

Lerida, I, 240.* 

LeRoy, I, 104. 

Lesions, II, 160. 

Lespugue (Haute-Garonne), I, 153, 254, 256, 
257," 239, (02825-2875 407,201,001 7%, oh 357y 
432. 

Lestridiou, II, 124, 129. 

Leval-Trahegnies (Hainaut), II, 308. 

Levallois flakes, I, 118, 121,* 133, 134, 136, 
142. 

Levallois-Perret (Seine), I, 117, II, 358. 

Leveille, II, 64. 

Leverett, I, 57, 61, 62. 

MEWS; plese |cee Les gs 

Licent, Father, I, 372. 

Lidén, Ragnar, I, 68, 74. 

Liége, I, 22, 100, II, 47, 61; Museum at, 
356, 410. 

Life, arboreal, I, 2, 297, 298. 


INDEX 


Lighting, Neolithic, II, 59; Paleolithic, I, 
234. 

Lignite, I, 53, 11, os..27m 

Liguria, II, 94, 220, 279. 

Limande, I, 116, 118. 

Limestone, implements of, I, 115,* 386, II, 


77, 95- 

Limeuil (Dordogne), I, 405, II, 432. 

Limnaea peregra, I, 347. 

Limnaea stage, I, 74. 

Limca gris &@ Succinées, I, 44, 45; rouge, I, 
82*; supérieur, I, 44. 

Linden, I, 70; 156: “Ie 256: 

Linen, I], 46; thread, 7iljog2) 

Lintz Museum, II, 231. 

Linum angustifolium, II, 155. 

Lion, I, 81, 118, II, 242, 262,* 267; cave, see 
Cave lion. 

Liquisse (Aveyron), II, 222. 

Lisbon, I, 86. 

Lisnacroghera, II, 254. 

Lithic complex, II, 133. 

Littleton, Bishop, I, 11. 

Littorina, 1, 72; littorea.. 1, 71,6 liners ess 
140; obtusa, I, 157*; rudts, I, 71; stage, 
I, 74; submergence, I, 69, 73; time, I, 71- 
72. 

Liveyre (Dordogne), II, 358, 432. 

Ljelimane (Haute-Senegal), I, 88. 

lamane lipesrsi. 

Loam, used as mortar, II, 31. 

Locks, II, 262-264. 
Locmariaquer, II, 104,* 
L197, ss 118,00 O,merose 

Locras, II, 72. 

Loess, I, 34, 36, 40, 41,* 42-48, 66, 83, 152, 
396; ancient, I, 44, 64, 65, Si, tea, omeee 
calcareous, I, 81; distribution of, I, 42; 
fauna of, I, 48; gray (limon gris a4 Suc- 
cinées), I, 44, 45, 46; mdnnchen, I, 45; 
middle ancient, I, 44, 45, 46; origin of, 
I, 423. recent, «1, 44264, 65 ,olgmlacweero. 
red Limon rouge fendille), I, 44, 453 
soft (with black points); If 4455 
streaked (limon panaché), I, 44, 45. 

Log-cabin type, of blockhouse, II, 73, 75. 

Lohest, Max, yy ssa- 

Loire River and Valley, I, 126, II, 63, 179. 

Loja, La (Oviedo), II, 452. 

London, I, 1203, 11, 256,, 2590. 

Longueroche (Dordogne), II, 358. 

Lons-le-Saunier, museum at, II, 145. 

Loom weights, II, 92, 93. 

Looms, II, 93, 97,* 145. 

Lorisinae, I, 299. 

Lortet (Hautes-Pyrénées), see Lorthet. 

Lorthet (Hautes-Pyrénées), I, 228,* 236,* 
200, 270, 286, lisssase: 

Lot; I,-302;1.; areas 

Lot-et-Garonne, I, 302. 

Lough Crew, II, 102. 

Lourdes (Hautes-Pyrénées), I, 234,* 269, 
270, 285, 286, 287,* Il, 172, 359, 433: 

Louvre, II, 256. 

Lower Forestian Epoch, I, 58, 60, 61, II, 8. 
136; man of, distribution of, in Europe, 
I, 378.* 

Lower Paleolithic Period, I, 103-129, II, 

Lower Turbarian Glacial Phase, I, 58, 60, 61. 

Lowes, II, 264. 


112,” “114, ote 


INDEX 


Loydreau, II, 63. 

Lozére, II, 107, 114, 161, 294. 

Lubbock, Sir John (Lord Avebury), I, 25, 
128. 

Lucania, II, 267. 

Lucretius, I, 9. 

Lugal-zaggisi, II, 51. 

Luseherz, II, 92, 154. 

Lussac-Le-Chateau (Vienne), I, 405. 

Lutra vulgaris, I, 180, 194. 

Luzaga, II, 236. 

Lyell, I, 410. 

Lynx, I,. 438. 

Lyons, Natural History Museum, II, 
University of, I, 398. 

Lys River, I, 63. 


286; 


Macacus, I, 299, 305, 309. 

MacAlister, II, 49. 

Macaque, I, 314. 

MacArthur, cave of, II, 8. 

Macedonia, II, 181. 

MacEnery, Rev. J., I, 20, 25. 

McGregor, I, 318. 

Machaerodus, I, 63, 81, 105, 434. 

Mackerel, Spanish, I, 281, 438, II, 140. 

Macon (Saone-et-Loire), II, 52. 

Mactra subtruncata, I, 39. 

Madagascar, I, 305, 312. 

Madeleine, La (Dordogne), I, 184, 187,* 
193, 194," 225, 236,* 260, 269, 270, 274," 
286, II, 171, 359, 433, 458; man of, I, 403. 

Madras, II, 16, 178. 

Madrid, II, 410-411; 
114. 

Magdalenberg, II, 232. 

Magdalenian Epoch, I, 27, 48, 49, 84, 154, 
fos 200, etl 2i seer, (222, (2237-224, 225, 
20, 245, 254, 265, 266, 268, 281, 285, 
Bauer, yale, 434, 439, 11, 3,4, 7, 137.- 
fessty2s) att) in, 1; 435; culture of,’ I, 
181, 195-206: fauna of, I, 435; geographic 
distribution of, I, 439; harpoons in, I, 
201-202; man of, I, 58, 63, 400-407, 461, 
II, 141; phases of, I, 185; type station of, 
TearS4,-185:" 

Magic, belief in efficacy of, I, 437; number, 
EL. <2709: 

Magleby, II, 190,* 191. 

Maglemosean Epoch, I, 72, 74, 84, II, 3, 11- 
15, 56, 57; geographic distribution of, II, 
16-19. 

Magnolias, I, 315. 

Magny-Lambert (Burgundy), II, 234, 264. 

Magrite (Namur), II, 308, 420. 

Mahudel, I, to. 

Maidenhead (Berkshire), I, 116. 

Mainz (Hesse), I, 155, 171, 254, II, 443. 

Mairie, La, I, 186,* 216, 222,* 232,* 284, II, 
360, 433, 460. 

Maize, II, 158. 

Malaise, I, 410. 

Malarnaud, man of, I, 359. 

Malaysia, I, 309. 

Male, burial of, in La Téne, II, 284; cos- 
tume, Hallstattian, II, 246-247; figure, 
Laussel, I, 234.* 

Malkata Peschtera (Trnovo), II, 312. 

Mallets, wooden, II, 7s. 

Malmé, II, 59. 


School of Mines, I, 


499 


Malta, I, 141; Mousterian stations in, I, 150. 

Maltese Islands, II, 400. 

Mammals, I, 294, II, 24; Era of, I, 26; in 
Baleolithic=art eel 250, 207-8043 776 488: 
species of, hunted in Paleolithic times, 
Bronze Age and Neolithic Period, II, 139. 

Mammoth, I, 45, 52, 54, 56, 65, 81, 93, 118, 
147, 152, 154, 160, 165, 173, 174, 176, 192, 
210, 218, 219, 224," 231,*) 237, 239, 242, 
245, 253, 268, 269, 270, 275, 291, 341, 
354, 397, 400, 408, 415, 434; fauna, I, 63, 
110. 

Mammouth, Le (Yonne), II, 360. 

Man, ; 5» 54; 76, 294-429; age of, I, 28, 83, 
431; Acheulian, I, 63; anatomic differences 
between, and apes, I, 294-298; Arcy, I, 
354; Aubert, I, 368; Aurignacian, I, 27, 
48, 58, 63, 84, 145, 160, 169, 174, 210, 312, 
379-399; Azilian, A 246, 266, i 3, 4-9» 
57, 60, 72, 142, 291, 294; Azilian-Tarden- 
oisian II, 292-294; Badegoule, I, 399; 
Bafiolas, I, 356-359; birth of, in Tertiary, 
I, 431; birthplace of, I, 311-313; Bize, I, 
409; Boskop, I, 423; Bréchamps, I, 417; 
Broken), Halle, 369-372, 430; Brunn, I, 
396; Brux, I, 414; Bury St. Edmunds, I, 
Ars; Camargo, 390; (Carstadt, -l, -408; 
Cap-Blanc, I, 403; Castenodolo, I, 411; 
Castillo, I, 399, 405; Chancelade, I, 385, 
II, 292, 340, 425; Chappelle-aux-Saints, I, 
344,357. 300-3025 Cheddar, I, 4113 Ciss- 
bury, Il, 57=s8;> Clichy, E, 4133 Combe, I; 
398; Combe-Capelle, I, 210, 383-385, 308, 
405; Cro-Magnon, I, 158, 210, 380-383, 
388, 390, 393, 398, 406, II, 94, 292, 294, 
295, 297; Dartford, I, 418, 419; Denise, I, 
410; Eguisheim, I, 413, Engelhoul, I, 410; 
Engis, 1, 400; Era, of; I} 2657-Estelas,- 1; 
368; Ferrassie, I, 357,* 360, 376, 377; fos- 
sil, I, 294-429; Freudental, I, 405; Fur- 
fooz, I, 412; Galley Hill, I, 417; Gibraltar, 
I, 350-351; Giesslingtal, I, 399; Gourdan, 
i350); Goyetwiiey 4123) Grenelle; lara: 
Grimaldi, I, 158, 385-394, 405, II, 292, 
295; Halling, I, 395-396; Heidelberg, I, 56, 
83, 313, 319-322, 337," 344, 366*; Hohle- 
fels, I, 425; Hoteaux, I, 402; interglacial, 
I, 340-350; Ipswich, I, 368, 420; Isturitz, 
I, 368; Jersey, I, 368; Klause, I, 399-400; 
Krapina, I, 344, 347,” 348, 349-350; Lahr, 
I, 408; Langwith, I, 419, 420; Laugerie- 
Basse, I, 400, 401*; Laugerie-Haute, I, 
3909; Lower Paleolithic, I, 378*; Mag- 
dalenian, I, 58, 63, 400-407, 461, II, 141; 
Madeleine, I, 403; Malarnaud, I, 359; Mar- 
cilly-sur-Fure, I, 416; Miskolez, I, 405; 
most important acquisitions of, II, 134; 
Mousterian, I, 56, 63, 131, 350-270, 433, 
436, II, 169; Naulette, I, 354; Neandertal, 
I, 150, 209, 311, 312, 344, 346, 350-379, 
416, 417, 433, 435; Neolithic, I, 402, 416, 
II, 294-296; Obercassel, I, 403-405; Obourg, 
II, 53; Ochos, I, 368; Ojcow, I, 399; or- 
ganic evolution of, I, 294-298; Oldoway, 
Teeae23 Olmos lo 412" eealeolithicael. © 76, 
390, 408-425, II, 91, 138, 139, 297; Pavi- 
land, I, 394-305; Pech de l’Aze, I, 367; 
Petit-Puymoyen, I, 368; Phoenicia, I], 48; 
physical complex of, I, 431; Piltdown, I, 3, 
63, 305, 323-340, 435; Placard, I, 402, 


500 


404*; place of, in nature, I, 4303 Pleisto- 
cene, I, 4333 Podbaba,, 1, 4rss) ere-Chel- 
lean, I, 322; Predmost, I, 396-398; Quina, 
I, 363-367, 377; Raymonden, I, 401-402, 
406; relation of, to anthropoids, I, 294; 
Rhodesia, I, 369-372, 436; Robenhausian, 
II, 46; Rochette, 1, 398; Salle-les-Cabardes, 
I, 368; sculptures of, J, 243; Shara Osso 
Goh, I, 372; Sipka, I, 354; Solutrean, I, 
58, 63, 175, 210, 399-400, 406,* 407; 
Sordes, I, 402; Spiennes, II, 54-55; Spy, 
I, 354-356, 357%; Strépy, II, 53; Svaerd- 
borg, II, 12; Talgai, I, 416; tests of blood 
of, 1,°2043 Tilbury, 1,0 4153) Upper .Pale- 
olithic, I, ~ 405-407; ) Wadjak,© I; 418s 
Weimar, I, 340-350; see also Homo. 

Manching, II, 252, 287. 

Mandan Indians, II, 173. 

Manjda (French Congo). II, 84. 

Mané-er-Hroeck, II, 1o1. 

Mane-lud, Il; 116,* 117, 205. 

Manganese oxide, I, 293. 

Manouvrier, I, 316, 417, Il, 165, 166. 

Mantes (Seine-et-Oise), I, 90, 91, Il, 165. 

Mantles, Halstattian, II, 247. 

Manzanares River, I, 19.* 

Maples, I, 39, I, 15, 157. 

Marcamps (Gironde), II, 433. 

Marcenac (Lot), II, 433. 

Marchesetti, I, 150. 

Marcilly-sur-Eure (Eure), I, 158; 
a Os 

Maret, de, I, 402. 

Marett; Ro Roy EE 108: 

Mariette, II, 152, 153- 

Marignac (Gironde), II, 360. 

Maritime expeditions, Egyptian, II, 148. 

Markkleeberg (Leipzig), I, 83, II, 388. 

Marino fmel sil 7A seues Ours 

Marmotte, La (Yonne), II, 360. 

Marne River and Valley, I, 109, II, 99, 
LOA, 161,220, 255, .257;) 201,0 270, 202. 

Marniére de Vilette (Loiret), Il, 360. 

Marseilles, II, 252, 267, 361, 461, 462. 

Marsoulas (Haute-Garonne), I, 218, 262, 
285, 291, II, 434, 460. 

Marten, I, 404. 

Martes sylvatica, II, 15. 

Martin, I, 94; E., I, 414; Henri, I, 137, 
138, 363, 365; P., I, 96, 

Marzabotto, II, 229. 

Mas d’Azil (Ariége), I, 193,* 246, 254, 262, 
260,” 27. 280, 2201, 6285, 2OO,nseo 71405, 
II, 3, 4, 5, 170, 171, 172, 218, 292, 361, 
434, 458. 

Mascaraux, I, 283. 

Maska;, I, 354; collection oi,, 1,307. 

Masks, II, 172; glass, II, 279; human, II, 
279. 

Masnaigre (Dordogne), II, 362. 

Masonry, Ll,-:110; 120," 223sedrys) Lest, 
Zh2s 

Massat (Ariége), I, 23, 187,* II, 362, 434. 

Massenat, I, 400, 4o1, II, 218, 419. 

Massingham Heath, II, 58. 

Mastabas, II, 123. 

Mastiffs, II, 152. 

Mastodon, I, 52, 98, 324, 328; angustidens, 
I, 87; arvernensis, I, 99, 4343; longirostris, 
eS zi 


man of, 


INDEX 


Masts, II, 145, 146. 

Maszycka (Galicia), II, 402, 445. 

Matthew, I, 300. 

Mauer, I, 319, 320,* 321; jaw, 1, 435¢ssand 
Ditaeleesc. 

Mauls, II, 60. 

Maumbury, II, 58. 

Mauritania, Mousterian stations in, I, 151. 

Mayet, Lucien, I, 87, 398. 

Meander motive, II, 245. 

Measures, II, 141, 213. 

Meats, curing of, II, 138. 

Meaux (Seine-et-Marne), II, 107. 

Meaza (Santander), Il, 452. 

Mecklenburg, II, 211. 

Mecklenburgian Epoch, I, 57, 58, 60, 61. 

Medicine men, II, 216. 

Mediterranean, I, 56; 62, Ll; oS; (2182405 
basin, Aurignacian of, I, 168.* 

Medway Valley, I, 92, 93, 395- 

Megaladapis, I, 299. 

Megalithic monuments, IJ, 22, 30, 42, 46, 
109-129, 220, 462. 

Mége, I, 224, 235,*° 268, UL, 270707 eee 
3625 

Mehlis, II, 18. 

Meikirch, Parish of, II, 242. 

Meilgaard, II, 25. 

Meillet, II, 64. 

Meles taxus, I, 143, 194. 

Melfort (Argyllshire), II, 211. 

Memmingen, I, 34. 

Men, engravings of, I, 242; paintings of, I, 
240.* 

Men-er-Hroeck, II, 112,* 114, 119. 

Menchecourt, I, 46, 47, 64, 65, IL) 362: 

Ménec, II, 110,* 124, 120. 

Menhirs, II, Frontispiece, 110,* 111, 117, 
123-129; statue, II, 99-102, 221. 

Mentality, Mousterian, I, 143. 

Mentone, I, 23,0247) 041,. 252,uNs00" 
II, 140, 171; Museum, 2," 302: 

Mercey-sur-Sadne, tumulus of, II, 277. 

Mercurago, II, 150, 188. 

Merigode, La, II, 67. 

Merovingian Epoch, I, 176. 

Merseburg (Germany), II, 89.* 

Merwin, A, II, 228. 

Mesocephaly, II, 294, 295. 

Mesolithic, I, 84. 

Mesopithecus, I, 299, 305; penelici, I, 305. 

Mesopotamia, I, 123, 434, II, 16; Chellean 
and Acheulian stations in, I, 129. 

Mesozoic, disease in, II, 160. 

Messein (Meurthe-et-Moselle), II, 236. 

Mesvin (Hainaut), I, 106, II, 308. 

Metal, II, 277; used as decoration, II, 79. 

Metallic oxides, II, 79. 

Metallurgy, II, 175-183. 

Metals, Age of, II, 49, 67, 73, 98, 133, 138, 
145. 

Metreville (Eure), II, 362. 

Metropolitan Museum, New York, II, 50. 

Metz, I, 83. 

Meulan, II, 107. 

Meuse Basin, 126; River, I, 63. 

Mexico, I, 192. 

Meyrannes (Gard), cave of, II, 202, 223. 

Mezine (Ukraine), I, 287, II, 445. 

Michelia, I, 315. 


sot 





INDEX 


Micoque, La (Dordogne), I, 120,* 140, 141, 
II, 363; industry, I, 150. 

Micro-gravers, I, tot. 

Microliths:, I, 103,154, 163, 
TOM MIRA 21, 72. 

Middens, kitchen, see Kitchen middens. 

Middle Neolithic Period, II, 71. 

Middle Paleolithic Period, I, 130-153; fatina 
of, I, 434. 

Mieg, II, 18. 

Migrations, floral and faunal, I, 52. 

Milazzian stage, I, 62. 

Milet, I, 148. 

Milk, II, 153. 

Barter Gv., 1, 335, 337. 

Millet, II, 46, 155. 

Milling stones, II, 44, 124, 155, 265. 

Miisoei en Ge tl 45 60,62, 1.92: 

Mills and Starr, II, 138. 

Millstones, II, 48. 

Minateda (Albacete), II, 452. 

Mindel Glacial Epoch, I, 29, 36, 37, 41, 49, 
54, 56, 60, 67,* 84; fauna of, I, 434. 
Mindel-Riss interglacial epoch, I, 36, 47, 48, 
49, 50, 54, 56, 60, 61, 83, 84; advance in 

culture in, I, 434. 

Mining, I, 49, II, 46, 60, 61, 175, 177, 178, 
570,100, Ii, 182, 230, 238; complex, IT, 
133; Neolithic, II, 52-61; Paleolithic, II, 
52. 

Minoan Epoch, II, 52, 205. 

Miocene, I, 26, 299, 304; chipped flints, I, 
86; lemurs, I, jor. 

Mirrors, II, 204, 253, 275; iron, II, 288. 

Mirzapur, II, 16. 

Miskolez, man of, I, 4os. 

Mistletoe, I, 116. 

Mitterberg Alp, II, 177; copper mine, I, 49. 

Mocchi, I, 195. 

Modeling, I, 216, 225,*; Paleolithic, I, 237- 
245. 

Models, wax, II, 192. 

Modena, I, 13, II, 188. 

VMoen. Li. 211. 

Moeribithecus, I, 299. 

Moir, Reid, I, 97, 99, 106, 368, 420, 421, 422. 

Mold (Flintshire), II, 197, 198.* 

Moldau River, II, 211. 

Diciis wil. 7557191, 192-193, 212; used by 
Neolithic man, II, 80-81. 

Mole, II, 60. 

Mollusks, I, 52, 70, 713; arctic, I, 54. 

Molsheim, II, 108.* 

Monaco, I, 123, 145, 434, II, 401; Chellean 
and Acheulian stations in, I, 126; Mous- 
terian stations in, I, 150; Museum of An- 
thropology at I, 389, 398*; Prince of, I, 24. 

Monastirian stage, I, 62. 

Monceau-Laurent, II, 234. 

Monconfort (Haute-Garonne), II, 434. 

Mondragon (Vaucluse), II, 255. 

Mondsee, II, 87.* 

meonev,. 1. oo; LL, 075. 192, 212, 251, 252, 
260, 267-268, 269, 272. 

Monkeys, I, 4, 300, 307; tailed, I, 294. 

Mons (Belgium), II, 137.* 

Monsheim, II, 108. 

Mont St.-Michel, II, 118. 

Mont Vaudois, Camp of, II, 64. 

Montaigle, I, 159, II, 309. 


Tg 8 AE SB 





S01 


lontastiucweleelO2se2s0. 9 Lie s63, 

Montauban (Tarn-et-Garonne), I, 141. 

Montbani (Aisne), II, 9. 

Montcombroux (Allier), II, 97. 

Montconfort (Haute-Garonne), I, 405, II, 
434 

Monte Arabi (Murcia), II, 453; Bamboli 
@iuscany sae mesos 5 Carini (Puscany)) a lie 
DAG. 

Montefortino, II, 274, 285. 

Mostelius,. O.,°1,) 14; .745. 76, L123, 52,88, 
98," 1238, -144,* 153, 157, 184, 209, 211, 
Dib Chast, EAC. 

Montespan (Haute-Garonne), I, 239, 
250," 20%, 11; 171, 435- 

Montesfuieu-Avantes (Ariége), II, 459. 

Montfaucon, Pére, I, 9, Io. 

Montfercaut (Marne), II, 274. 

Montferrand (Périgord), I, 383. 

Montfort (Ariége), II, 139,* 363, 435. 

Montgaudier (Charente), II, 171, 435. 

Montguillan (Oise), I, 118. 

Montiéres (Somme), I, 45, 48, 80, 106, 110,* 

Tate 42. le 364. 

Montmorency, Forest of, II, 66. 

Monuments, II, 22, 30; megalithic, II, 22, 
30, 42, 46, 109-129, 220, 462; national, 
I, 248; preservation of, II, 458-478. 

Moon, II, 250. 

MiGosenlen226;, 237, y92755. 1d) ri. 

Nieosecdort, lisuAy, 7. 72n8 TA S450 155, 
15 Oye nozs 

Moraines, I, 33, 41, 47, 56, 58. 

Moravia, 1, 48,.158,. 368; 11, jot, 232: 

Morbilian,\ 11388. rot,:.107, 100; 210,*) 1 12;* 
Bae mtAterlOvse DNs l CO welcome) Leo, 
Zio whos 

Moretain, Abbé, I, 129. 

de Morgan, 1, 128, 151, Il, ‘148: 

Morgenstrup, II, 28.* — 

Morgenstrup, Jutland, II, 137.* 

Morges (Geneva), II, 72, 183, 222. 

Meorigan Epoch, II, 183, 188. 

Morigen (or Moringen), II, 72, 92, 143, 
TS4,eS 7 LOS alors Loom rOz, 210. 

Morin (Santander), II, 41r1- 

Morocco. las rar. 

Morovitsa (Teteven), II, 312. 

Morsodou (Dordogne), II, 427. 

Mortar, ID; 32. 

Mortars, ly 234° "237. 

de Mortillet, Gabriel, I, 13, 25, 86, 87, 104, 
LOGR LOM WOT oA erOt sm oO 2 AO Lema Ta. 
AtO,e LI 3,5 9;\27). 44, (64,° 66," 106, 124, 
DOE tet Ose TOT Loos 

Morton, I, 297, 298.* 

Morts; hes, Ils 435% 

Moru (Seine-et-Oise), IT, 364. 

Moselle Valley, II, 137.* 

Mosul, II, 228. 

Mother-of-pearl, II, 141. 

Motives, geometric, II, 220, 228, 229, 267, 
269*; meander, II, 245; scutiform, II, ror, 
£03) 4404," 118s sigmoid. 1,287) le 283, 
256; spiral, II, 102, 189,* 191; stag-head, 
I, 224; wave, II, 86; wheel, II, 217. 

Motte d’Apremont, La (Haute-Sadne), II, 
235, 

Motte, La (Jersey), II, 109.* 

Motte-Saint-Valentin, II, 277. 


ear. 





502 


Moulin-Quignon, II, 364; man of, I, 411. 

Mountain ash, II, 156. 

Mountain avens, I, 57. 

Mouse, field, II, 60. 

Mousselots, Les, II, 234, 235- 

Moustier, Le (Dordogne), I, 130, 131,* 132, 
134, 136,* 145, 161, 364, 385, 458, 461; 
man of, I, 359-360, 377, 420. 

Mousterian Epoch, I, 27, 48, 79, 82, 83, 84, 130, 
153, 349, 400, 430, II, 52, 94, 136; burials 
in, I, 145, 360,- 3613; cold, I, 132, 142, 
439; culture in, geographic distribution of, 
I, 144-153; dead, care of in, I, 145; de- 
posits of, I, 399; divisions of, I, 141-143; 
duration, of, Ij. 1413" fauna oz, 1° 132, (747, 
142, 143, 434; implements in, I, 45, 103, 
132-141, 362, 368, 417; industry of, I, 57, 
64, 65, 66, 76, 80, 81, I10, 139-141, 150; 
Lower, -Le14i5 mann, 1, 56,163;7 838. 350— 
379, 433, 436, II, 169; social organization 
in, I, 144; stations of, I, 435; type station 
OfsLl,1 305° EL SIy tse, ela Oseew a tile mela ey 
141. 

Mouthe, La (Dordogne), I, 156,* 243,* 291, 
405, II, 7, 364, 435, 460. 

Mouthiers (Charente), I], 436. 

Moutmy—Muchembled pit, I, 80.* 

Mt.2Anuxois CCotesd?Or) IL 252: 

Mt. Beuvray (Sadne-et-Loire), II, 251-252, 
ZBOA 205s 

Mt. Caburn, II, 264. 

Wiktislsin De, Ils ke) 

Mugem, Portugal, II, 294; race of, II, 294. 

Muhleloch (Olten-Soloturn), II, 416. 

Muids, Le (Loiret), II, 365. 

Miter, \IL 23,2003 ti... lyat 9, ean or, ek. 

ete 

Mullerup, Il, 11, 13; 14. 

Mullins, Rev. E. H., I, 419. 

Mummy pit. II, 150. 

Mincheberg (Brandenburg), II, 279. 

de Munck, I, 100, II, 53. 

Munich, Antiquarium of, II, 250. 

Munnoe yao: 

Miinsingen, IJ, 272, 285.* 

Munthe, H, I, 74. 

Munzingen (Baden), II, 380. 

Mur de Barrez (Aveyron), II, 53,* 58. 

Mural art, I, 22,* 24,* 212-218, 249, 437, II, 

138; oldest, I, 263; use of color in, II, 

94; stylistic, II, 7. 

Murat =(Let) Li 3655436. 

Murcens (Lot), II, 265. 

Murten, Switzerland, II, 92. 

Mus musculus, I, 48, 194; sylvaticus, I, 194. 

Music, II, 197, 198. 

Musk ox, I, 52, 54, 194, 
434, 438. 

Mustela martes, I, 194; vulgaris, I, 48, 194. 

Mya arenaria, I, 73. 

Mycene, II, 181, 195, 210. 

Mycetes, I, 299. 

Myodes obensis, I, 210; torquatus, I, 48, 194. 

Mytilus edulis, I, 39, II, 15, 24, 140. 

Myths, I, 4. 








220; 269, 2775 


Nackhalle, II, 197. 

Nad-Galoska (Piotrokow), II, 402. 
Naef, II, 283,* 287. 

Nagada, II, 148, 181. 


INDEX 


Nahr-el-Kelb, II, 47. 

Nahr-Zaharani, II, 48. 

Nails, iron, II, 285. 

Namur, II, 59. 

Nancy (Dordogne), II, 436. 

Narbonne (Aude), II, 6, 259; Museum, I, 
409. 

Nassa neritea, I, 282, 386; reticulata, II, 24. 

Naulette, La (Namur), II, 309; man of, I, 
354: 

Navigation, II, 23, 141-148. 

Neander Valley, I, 23. 

Neandertal Epoch, fauna of, I, 434; man in, 
I, 150, 209, 311, 312, 344, 346, 350-379, 
416, 417, 433, 435- 

Nebraska, I, 311. 

Nebraskan drift, I, 53. 

Neck bands, bronze, II, 2or. 

Necklaces, I, 156, 211,*° 282, 392, 303, 304, 
II, 94, 100, 202, 227, 247, 269, 277, 286; 
amber, Il, 36, 2or, 210,"| 211, 279s seanan 
II, 248; ivory, I, 398%: jet, “1, 255. tee 
manic, LE, 279. 

Necrolemur, I, 299, 302. 

Needles, bone, I, 155, 180, 185, 487," 30a 
204-205, 232, 256, 436, II, 15,* 92; bronze, 
II, 90, 202; crochet, II, 92; invention of 
eyehole in, I, 154, 436; ivory, I, 204-205, 
232, 436, II, 92; wooden, II, 92. 

Neergaard, II, 11. 

Negadah, II, 148. 

Negra (Albacete), II, 453. 

Negritos, II, 138. 

Negroid type, I, 390,* 407, 423. 

Nemours (Seine-et-Marne), II, 59. 

Neolithic Period, I, 27, 49, 65, 66, 84, 156, 
159, 177, 237; If 4, 7, 21-132, 195, 234; 
advances in, II, 21-23, 133, burials, I, 
395, II, 28-36, 103-129; caves in, II, 294; 
chronology of, II, 21, 23-52; climate of, 
I, 73, II, 21; fauna of, II, 21; figure stones 
in, I, 209; commerce in, II, 158-160; en- 
gineering, II, 11,* 114; habitations in, II, 
61-64, 67-69, 72-75, 108; herding in, II, 
277; implements in, I, 414, II, 21, 23, 25, 
26-28, 36-39, 40-42, 43*; lake dwellings 
in, II, 67-75; man in, I, 402, 416, II, 294- 
296; Middle, II, 71; minings in, II, 52-61; 
ornaments in, II, 94-99; phases of, and 
land elevations, I, 73; polishing in, II, 40; 
pottery in, II, 39, 75-91, 92*; sculpture in, 
II, 40, 99-102, 221; textiles in, II, 91-94, 
96,* 97*; workshops in, II, 64-67. 

Nephrite, II, 46, 47, 98, 1509. 

Nescers (Puy-de-Doéme), II, 366, 436. 

Net sinkers, II, 39, 181. 

Netting, II, 92. 

Network, II, 45. 

Neuchatel, II, 254,*° 295% lake, loaeeue 
68,* 69, 141, I8I, 187, "188, .250;ee08te 
Museum, II, 251. 

Neu-Essing, I, 349, 399, II, 7. 

Neussargues (Cantal), II, 262. 

Neuville, II, 46. 

Neuweiler, II, 154. 

New Grange, II, 12, 33, 102. 

New South Wales, I, 417. 

Newbury (Berkshire), II, 72. 

Newton, I, 417, 418; W. M., I, 209, 419. 

Neyrinckx, I, 86; II, 54. 


INDEX 


Niaux (Ariége), I, 233, 242, 289, 291, II, 
366, 436, 458, 460. 

Nickel. II, 377. 

Nicobar Islands, II, 69. 

Nicolle, I, 368. 

Nicollucci, I, 18. 

Nidau, II, 187, 2109. 

Niederterrassenschotter, I, 34. 

Niederwil, II, 92, 157. 

Nae Lily 1rd, hs0, 182. 

Nilsson, I, 13, II, 24, 209. 

Nineteenth Dynasty, II, 227. 

Nineveh, IT, 181, 227. 

Nisin dynasty, II, 51. 

Nostvet culture, I, 73, 75. 

Noetling, I, 90. 

Nointel (Oise), II, 58. 

Noires Mottes, I, 63. 

Nordenskiold, II, 1, 76. 

Nordic race, II, 297. 

Norfolk, I, 52, 95, 97, 106, Il, 53, 55: 
Forest Bed, I, 53, 54. 

Norfolkian Epoch, I, 53, 60, 61. 

Normandy, I, 126, II, 288. 

Norrland, I, 7o. 

Norss-_ bh) 215. 

NWontieeAmerica, 0, 525-53, 54,,56, 57, 61, 62, 
299, II, 97, 175; primates in, I, 301. 

North Downs, I, 63, 92, 93, 94, 95, 327- 

North Sea, I, 53, 54, II, 98, 211. 

North Sea River, I, 63. 

Norway, I, 70, 71, 75, II, 35, 121, 146, 296. 

Norwich, I, 98; Crag, I, 98. 

Notharctus, I, 299. 

Noulet, I, 18, 147. 

Novaculite, II, 61. 

Nubia, II, 179. 

Nuclei, flint, I,. 103, 112, 158, 177, 436, II, 
9, 26, 47, 48, 64, 66; obsidian, II, 142; 
Pressigny, II, 63*; see also Cores. 

Numbers, magic, II, 279. 

Nuphar luteum, I, 53. 

Nursing bottles, II, 207. 

Wats, EL, 46. 

Nydam, II, 145. 

Nyerup, R., I, 13. 


Oak, II, 11, 15, 25, 46, 73, 156, 157, 200, 
2057) 253: 

Oars, IT, 145, 146, 148. 

Oatselly 19 4.-157- 

Oban, caverns of, II, 8. 

Obercassel (Rhine), II, 
403-405. 

Obergtinzburg, I, 35. 

Obermaier, I, 24, 51, 53, 90, 128, 165, 181, 
284, 341, 348, 349, 358, 368, 396, 399, 
AVP EAL Fen Leos 

Obermeilen, I, 15, II, 71. 

Oborzysko wielkie (black cave), I, 399. 

Obourg (Hainaut), II, 53. 

Observatoire, L’ (Monaco), II, 4or. 

Obsidian, II, 99, 142, 159, 199. 

Ocher, I, 234, 237, 293, 391, 392, 399, 400, 
Agee lly $6, 108,° 292. 

Ochos, man of, I, 368. 

Octobon, II, 9. 

Oedenburg, II, 232, 246. 

Oenochoé type vases, II, 241,* 243. 

Oenochoés, II, 265; bronze, II, 281, 287. .. 


444; man of, I, 


503 


Ofnet (Bavaria), II, 294, 389. 

Ohio, II, 14, 62, 192; mining in, II, 60. 

Oise River and Valley, I, 64, II, 99, 100, 
119. 

Ojcow (Poland), man of, I, 399. 

Oklahoma, mining in, II, 60, 61. 

Old Stone Age, summary of, I, 430-440. 

Oldoway, man of, I, 422. 

Olfactory organs, I, 2. 

Olha (Basses-Pyrénées), II, 366. 

Oligocene Period, I, 26, 101, 299, 300, 304, 
ee 

Olmo (Tuscany), II, 398; man of, I, 412. 

Olstykke, IT, 29,* 32.* 

Olympia, II, 243. 

Omalian phase, II, 47. 

dOmalius, I, 86. 

Ombrive, L’ (Ariége), II, 366, 436. 

Omomys, I, 299. 

Onda, all’ (Lucca Alpi), II, 398. 

Ondratitz (Moravia), II, 314. 

Onions Il 57; 

Opiates, plants cultivated for, II, 155. 

Oppida, II, 251, 252, 253, 264. 

Orange, II, 256, 259. 

Orang-utan, I, 294, 
B12; 330." 

Oreopithecus, I, 299; bambolii, I, 305. 

Orésund; ly 71,72. 

Orient, II, 81, 98, 238. 

Orkneys, II, 128. 

Orleans, Il, 240:* 

Ornamentation, ceramic, II, 61, 62, 63, 228, 
229; linear, II, 39; of helmets, II, 256, 
257; of pottery, II, 76; of shields, II, 257, 
259: of tombs, JI, 221;: zonal, Il, 87.* 

Ornaments, I, 156, 211, 436, II, 23, 28, 39, 
105, E50, 165, 188, 1190," 4 201—202,, (231, 
e825. Aurignacian, cl, i1s3* 3: burialsot, (11, 
284; first, II, 94; gold, II, 179, 235; Hall- 
stattian, II, 246-250, La Téne, II, 268— 
275; Neolithic, II, 94-99; of Neolithic lake 
dwellers, II, 72; punctate, II, 91; silver, 
II, 180; votive, II, 97. 

Ornavasso, Italy, II, 283.* 

Oronsay, island of, II, 8, 142. 

Osborn, I, 311. 

Oscillations, climatic, correlation of, I, 59-62. 

Oseberg, II, 145. 

Ostrea edulis, II, 15, 24, 73. 

Ostrea level, I, 73. 

Ostrich, I, 152: 

Otranto, II, 121. 

Otta, I, 86. 

Otto, I, 128, 176, 269, 277, 283, 314, 438, 
Lira 

Oullins (Gard), I, 437. 

Ourthe River, I, ror. 

Ouse River and Valley, I, 63, 107, 323, 327. 

Outwash, I, 33, 35, 54, 57- 

Ovibos moschatus, I, 48, 165, 180. 

Qvid, I1,.2to:. 

Oviedo, II, 295. 

Ovifak, II, 176. 

Ovis aries palustris, II, 154; aries studeri, 
Tins 4. 

Owen, Sir Richard, I, 415, 416. 

Owl, I, 279, 438. 

Ox, I, 54, 111, 112, 118, 125, 127, 147, 173, 
174, 175, 223,* 346, 361, 392, 393, II. 97, 


299, 304,* 306,* 309, 


504 


150, 220, 277, 283+ cult ‘of; IL, 218;5 do- 
mesticated,e Ll erst. 53,0054, S76 
Oxford Museum, I, 395. 
Oxide of manganese, use of, as ornament, 


II, 94. 
Oysters, II, 24, 25, 140, 154. 


Paddles, steering, II, 148. 
Pals ilee2s3oe, 


Paint, Paleolithic, receptacles for, I, 235, 
244.* 
Painting, la cot, 2tls elon eee Oo amee Oo, 


225," 240," LLLy 148, 207501260, 2 1200. 5 

Paints, used in toilet, II, 273. 

Pair-non-Pair’ (Gironde), 1,214, . 216," 285, 
438, II, 97, 367, 437+ 

Paleolithic art, I, 22,* 23,* 24," 27; 207-203, 
436-439; animals in, I, 250, 267-285, 437, 
4383) birds. in, 15 3250992 70,6270,me7 0-250, 
437-438; evolution of, I, 207-249, 436; 
field of, I, 249-292; inanimate in, I, 250, 
285-292; invertebrates in, I, 285, 438; fish 
11, sl, ee, 200, e270, ete eoO, ee 2oA msl 7, 
438; materials used in, I, 292-293; per- 
spective in, Ij) 72253 plants™imy le. 285,0437, 
438; realism in, I, 218-225; stations for, 
il, 419-457. 

Paleolithic Period, I, 25, 27, 66, 84, 103- 
206, 434, 11,6 $0; )140¢) Caves\ in, wily or; 
floors in, I, 118; Lower, I, 103-129, II, 
136; man in, I, 76, 390, 408-425, II, or, 


138, 139, 297, see also under Chellean, 
Pre-Chellean, etc.; Middle, I, 130-153; 
stations of I, 258, II, 301-417; subdivi- 


sions of, I, 103, 434; transition from, to 
Neolithic Period, II, 3-20; Upper, I, 154- 
206, 405-407, 435, 436, 439, II, 137, 138. 
workshops in, II, 66. 

Paleoliths? lg25 92; v.03, oo 2. 

Paleopithecus, I, 299. 

Paleopropithecus, I, 299. 

Paleozoic, disease in, II, 160. 

Palestiness: Dl 30,6048. 40,8 DLO, eter OS, 
chronology of, II, 49-50. 

Palettes; Paleolithic, I, 235. 

Pallarysel; e127. 

Pallfy (Little Carpathian Mts.), II, 314. 

Palmettes, II, 242, 256, 271. 

Paloma, La (Asturias), II, 411. 

Paloma weloas (Cadiz)elieessiss 

Paludina marginalis, I, 125. 

Paludinenbank, I, 53. 

Paniculum miliaceum, II, 155. 

Pan, see Troglodytes. 

Pan wvetus, 1, 335: 

Papaver somniferum, II, 155. 

Papeterie, La (Charente), II, 155. 

Parapithecus, I, 299. 

Parasitism, II, 160. 

Parietal areas of skull Tes; art, 4, seis, 233: 

Paring knives, I,.72, 134, II, 5, 11, 26, 44, 
A550 47.400; 202-9200.5 

Paris Museum, I, 354, 359, 360, 362, 364, 
eho oy, alll dete 

Pariser formation, I, 83, 341. 

Parma,eloata, sll, .168. 

Parpallo, El (Valencia), II, 453. 

Parrot-beaks, I, 190, 192.* 

Parrotia, I, 53. 

Parsnip, II, 155. 








INDEX 


Parsonage Farm, Stanstead, I, 94. 

Partridge, I, 279, 438. 

Pasiega, La (Santander), I, 272, 286, 290, 
Il, 453. 

Passage graves, I, 74, II, 30, 88, 113,* 114, 
155,110, 0120,ul2teroes 

Passemard, 1], 282. 

Paste, as used by Neolithic potter, II, 77-78. 

Pastinaca sativa, II, 155. 

Patagonia sel a3 ire 

Patallacta, II, 164.* 

Patina, 1) 5813) 0444. 

Pattie lar 710: 

Patnuage erate 

Patterns, of Neolithic pottery, II, 86; spiral, 
iD 790. 

Pavndort.. Limes ot 

Paur, Mi Lis o7 

Pausanias, I, 9. 

Paviland (Glamorganshire), II, 321; man of, 
I, 394-395. 

Payre de la Fade, II, 12. 

Reda ll mensic: 

Peabody Museum, Yale, I, 2x1, 282,70) 
228, 

Peacock; Ti; 2147onns 5: 

Peake, II, 68. 

Pearl? o1 Saya us Gs 

Pearls, Il, 141,.237." 

Peat, I, 44, 66; bogs, I, 39, JI, aome@ess 
mosses, I, 58, 59. 

Pebbles, I,- 292, «350, 388, Idis5, ageees 
Azilian, II, 3, 8; engraved, I, 213; painted, 
I, 27, 246; Tie SO ne eeeto. 

Pech de Bertrou (Dordogne), II, 368; de 
VAze (Dordogne), I, 367, 368. 

Pecten jacobaeus, I, 175. 

Pekarna (Moravia), II, 421. 

Pelvis, human, I, 297. 

Pelycodus, I, 299. 

Pefia de Candamo, La (Asturias), II, 412, 
454; de Carranceja (Santander), II, 412; 
del Mazo (Santander), II, 407, 448; 
Escrita de Fuencaliente (Ciudad Real), II, 
454; Tu (Asturias), II, 102. 

Penches (Burgos), II, 454. 

Penck, I, 34, 35, 36, 37; 47, 48, 49, 59, 515 
52, 53, 54, 56, 57, 58, 59, G0, 61, g4ac. 
Pendants, II, 14; 95, 118, 120, .202seeeeos 
231, 269, 272; ambér, II, 98*; ‘amulets, 
Il, 277; bone, ID, 72; 156, 274 7h oneeeoooe 
392, 393; copper, II, 223; glass, II, 279; 
gold, II, 250; savory, 1, 07;) 156; 1749eece 
staghorn, II, 2885 Sstone, “1, nyaeee 

wheels, II, 277. 

Pendo, El (Santander), II, 412, 454. 

Pengelly, W., I, 21. 

Penguin, I, 279, 438. 

Penknife blades, II, 3, 5. 

Penmenmawr, II, 66. 

Pefion de la Tabla de Pochico (Jaén), II, 
454. 

Peorian interglacial stage, I, 61. 

Peppard, II, 58. 

Pépue, La (Dordogne), II, 437. 

Percussion, bulbs of, conchoid of, I, 
plane. Of, L142. 

Peresselentscheskij Pt. (Yenisei), II, 405. 

Périgueux Museum, I, 402. 

Pérot, I, 97. 


Tc. 


INDEX 


Perotte, La (Charente), II, 114. 

Perrier du Carne, II, 165. 

Perrot, I, 209. 

Persepolis, II, 182. 

Persia, II, 85, 179, 182; chronology of, II, 
51-52. 

Peru, JJ, 163. 

Peschiera (Verona), II, 188, 200, 279. 

Pesko (Bukk Mts.), II, 304. 

Pestles; 1, 112: 

Petersen, Il, 35. 

Petrsinsel, II, 157. 

Petit-Morin, Valley of, II, 58, 99,* 104, 162.* 

Petit-Puymoyen, Le (Charente), II, 368. 

Petite-Garenne, La (Charente), II, 59. 

Petria 6. E,, 1, 201: 

Petriew hae lL 209,. LE, 181. 

Petroglyphs, II, 208, 215, 220, 221*; Span- 
ishvelie 62" 7. 

Peu-Richard, camp of, II, 64. 

iBeyvrat ore, . 14363. 

Peyre-Haute, II, 286. 

Peyrony, I, 24, 134, 209, 284, 360, 367, II, 
171, 419, 461, 462. 

Peyzac (Dordogne), I, 130. 

Pfaffikon, Lake of, II, 45. 

Pieter. 1, 346. 

Pflugfelden, II, 246. 

Philippine Islands, II, 69. 

Philippopoli, II, 94. 

Phoenicia, IJ, 172, 209; chronology of, II, 
47-50; Paleolithic sites in, II, 4or. 

Phragmites communis, I, 53. 

Phyllopods, I, 57. 

iPaanico, Italy, 1,957; 

Pianosa, Island of, II, 142. 

Pica, oe G0; 

Picardy. 41, 68, 

Picea balsami, I, 53; excelsa, II, 157; seri- 
Ane.eel. 53; 

Pickaxes, iron, II, 182. 

Peewee 7 td, 1h, Th) 15,* 44,45," 47, 
53, 54, 55,°50, 57, 58, 59, 61, 262. 

Pictets c,d 0: 

Rictosrapus, Il; 102, 143, 144.* 

Pierres-Plates, 11; 102, 104,* 1r7. 

Piette, 17) 24) 216, 0280, 281, 283, 286, 359, 
Le sod ta Oneey, 218, 419. 

Pigeons, IJ, 153, 154, 281. 

Pigorini, I, 105, Il, 3188. 

Pigs, domesticated, II, 151, 154, 288. 

Pigweed, II, 155. : 

Pike ie 2oie, 285, 284, 438, LI, 13, 140. 

Pikermi, Greece, I, 305. 

Piemimerinesouu tl 67, 368, .60,. 73, 87, 
Is4; villages, 11,68," 71, 72, 73, 74, 75; 
Pot aor c00se 212.) 213, 263. 270, 

Pileta, La (Malaga), I, 292, II, 454. 

Pilgrim, 1, S71, 305. 

Pxtioyeletao: 

wimoown, 2. 07, 0G, 107, 108,* 323,* 433, 
aor mbes eoravels, |. 328, 3325 man, J. 
63, 305, 323-340, 435. 

PindawecAstiutias), [,°280,* .290,* 2o1, IT, 
455. 

piue, iy 30; 70, L1,, tty 25,73, 157: 

eitisya iy 35, 1102,4 202, 218.222, 223; 231, 
247; bone, I, 419; bronze, II, 75, 224, 
232; silver, II, 180. 

Pinus silvestris, II, 157. 





505 


Pirogtet; <1, 223. 

Pisede. la Vache: (Lot) 71154368. 

Pisum sativum, II, 155. 

Pitchers) 1 lezar. 62d 3.265. 

Pithecanthropus erectus, I, 3, 299, 311, 313- 
319, 435. 

Pitsy cabin; Liao 

Pittard,. f).237,(1236,0 Li, o8st, 20s: 

Placard, Le. (Charente), 21, 9179," 7180,-1185, 
a83,% 280," 403," . 11, 72;. 171, 369;°437; 
458, 460; man of, I, 402, 404.* 

Places Vie. Lie nor, 2277. 

Plage du Havre, La (Seine-Inférieure), II, 
369. 

Plaice.- le 2oreAsoe 

Planche-Torte (Corréze), II, 370, 437. 

Planera, I, 53. 

Planes; U5 262. 

Planes, Les (Charente), II, 370. 

Plantade, II, 371. 

Plants, Celle-sous-Moret, I, 40; Cromer, 1, 
39; cultivated for opiates, II, 155; domes- 
HICAMOTINNOT we UUs ene 40 56)-m ELOtting salen 4 oe 
Hoxne, I, 40; in Paleolithic art, I, 285, 
437, 438; see also Floras. 

Plaques, 11; 7,189," 19%. 

Plateau du Rocher de Soyon (Ardéche), I, 
136." 

Plating of gold, II, 205. 

Platows Lino, 

Platyrrhinians, I, 302, 308. 

Pleistocene Epoch, I, 26, 27, 29-85, 103, 107, 
115, 116," 147, 268, 299, 305, 358, 395, 
407; 423;- 433, 119-6; in \Fenno-Scandia, 
I, 66-72, 74: in Somme Valley, I, 62-66. 

Plesidy (Cétes-du-Nord), II, 123. 

Pleuronectes, II, 15; limanda, II, 140. 

[Piknahie, IME aiige, es aba, 

Pliocene Epoch, “15 26,30, 51, (635.94, 86, 
93, 99, 107, 268, 299, 305, 313, 328, 411, 
Ti n30,6205e 5. Climatenotal, ory ine tase 
Anglia, I, 97—100. 

Pliopithecus, I, 299, 304; antiquus, I, 304. 

Plouarzel (Finistére), II, 123. 

Plouharnel, II, 129. 

Plovieariwel eens sar 

Plows, (1) 157,220, 

Plowshares, II, 265. 

Plugs, cork, II, 144. 

IeMkGhooe BOE, siete 

Plummets, ivory, I, 397. 

Po Valley, II, 68, 186, 188. 

Pockthorpe Hall, II, 288. 

Rodbaba ws latrso;—manmot, slat =. 

Pointed and flat-poled ax epcch, IJ, 23, 27- 
28. 

Roints elsecow e1Ol LOS mir inet 3a.l 4s TAs 
$62,).345,' 367, 11, 25,47; 48,2233) Audi, 
see Blades, I, 161; bone, I, 162,* 165, II, s, 
[3d 30. 107 E203, Chatelperron, sec 
Blades; flat, I, 162; Font Robert, I, 27, 
164,879) 174, 1760" -197s: Gravette, 1,4 163% 
javelin, I, 185; laurel leaf, I, 172, 175, 177, 
178,* 179, 180, 183, 409, 437; Mousterian, 
Ey 134,°1367s. pedunculate, 1,133; 165, 177; 
Proto-Solutrean, I, 179*; triangular, II, 
133 willow leaf, I, 170,* 180, 437, II, 254. 

Poitrels II, 197, 198.* 

Pokers, Ll, 264: 

Poland, I, 123, 145, 399, 434, 438, II, 295; 


506 


Acheulian in, I, 127; Aurignacian in, I, 
166, 170; Chellean in, I, 127; Magdalen- 
ian in I, 200, 204; Mousterian in, I, 150; 
Paleolithic sites in, II, 402; transitional 
cultures in, II, 18. 

Polar willow, I, 57. 

Polecat, II, 60. 

Polished stone implements, I, 25, 27, 156-157, 
Li e2i,) 62,503, 61, 118s Age sor ett, 
21. 

Polishers; 1,917 250174,00l,ni2os846- 

Polishing, I, 156-157, II, 21, 27, 40; stones, 
Ll 462; 

Polonian Epoch, I, 56, 60, 61. 

Polygonum convolvulus, II, 156. 

Pomades, II, 273. 

Pomerania, II, 267. 

Pommiers (Aisne), II, 264. 

Pondres (Gard), I, 22, 409. 

Pongo, I, 299, 309. 

Poniard-axes, II, 220. 

Poniards, 1, 127.01 2352558 30,8 3058 105501035 
210, 922258223, 023250235 7 rallstattianye Lt. 
40; Neolithic, II, 40-42, 43.* 

Pont.du Gard (Gard), 1, 7, 438: 

Ponte de Sor, II, 102. 

Pontlevoy, I, 118.* 

Poplars, II, 157. 

Poppy, II, 155. 

Populus, II, 157. 

Porcupine, I, 314. 

Pork,olt, “rst, 281. 

Poron des Cuéches, Le (Cote-d’Or), II, 371. 

Portable art, I, 211, 249, 292. 

Portel, Le (Ariége), II, 438. 

POrtiSieeA;, inees3s 

Portlandia arctica I, 69. 

Portonville (Seine-et-Marne), II, 59. 

Portugal, I, 145, 434, Il, 26, 53, 88, 98, 
Mor ii, Nie ein Bee eh Biel, ete 
cultures of Europe represented by, I, 123; 
Mousterian in, I, 151; Paleolithic sites in, 
II, 403; transitional cultures in, II, 18. 

Posen, II, 218, 267. 

Post alee VON selena eA 

Post-Daun time, I, 84. 

Postglacial Epoch, I, 70, 74; in Europe, I, 
67*; in Scandinavia, I, 72-76; length of, 
I, 68. 

Post-Littorina time, I, 72. 

Post-Neolithic lake dwellers, in England, II, 
72. 

Post-Wiirmian climatic oscillations, in Scot- 
landjel,58—so: 

Posture, erect, I, 1, 3, 294-298, 370, 376,” 
377*; Mousterian, I, 374, 375-376. 

Pot boilers, II, 56. 

Potatoes, II, 158. 

Pothangers, II, 264. 

Pothier Llssor, 2t235- 

Pothooks, II, 243. 

Pots; 11,265. 

Potsherds, I, 21, 412, TI, 44, 45, 47, 48, 63, 
II9, 120. 

Potter’s earth, I, 44; wheel, II, 76, 81, 82, 
90, 205, 244, 265. 

Potters, Neolithic, II, 82-86. 

Pottery, 1,.15,. 22, 27, 400, IT, +t5,* 335 27. 
35, 36, 44, 45, 47, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 63, 
69, 70, 71, 107, 108, 117, 120, 124, 128, 


INDEX 


138, 165, 185, 186, 215, 2319,"*9 2247 eee0: 
230, 252, 253, 267, 270," 284, 287) 26850414 
theim, II, 89; amphorette-shaped, II, 88; 
Bernburg, II, 89; Bronze Age, II, 205- 
207; caliciform, II, 88; firing of, II, 39; 
furnace, II, 83, 85; German, II, 87*; glaz- 
ing of, II, 83; globular, II, 87*; goblet- 
form, II, 88; Hallstattian, 11, 244-246; La 
Téne, II, 265, 267; Neolithic, II, 39, 75- 
91, 92"; Rossen, T1087," 50. 

Pougues-les-Eaux (Niévre), Il, 224. 

Poupées, I, 45. 

Pouzats, Les (Lot), II, 376, 440. 

Pouzet, Le (Dordogne), II, 438. 

Pradiéres (Ariége), II, 438. 

Prado del Azogue, El (Jaén), II, 455. 

Pré-Aubert, II, 371. 

Pre-Chellean Epoch, I, 27, 84, 102, 104-109, 
123, 433, 434, II, 136; man in, I, 322. 
Predmost (Moravia), I, 314, 4213; loess 
fauna of, I, 48, 158, 287, 405; man of, 

I, 396-398. 

Prefrontal areas, of skull, I, 3. 

Prehistory, chronology of, I, 27; classifica- 
tion of, I, 26; early discoveries in, I, 9- 
13; length of, I, 28; unity of, I, 430. 

Pre-Illinoian loess and silt, I, 54. 

Pre-Kansas drift, I, 53. 

Preneste, 11; e2202 

Prerau,; 94.390: 

Presle, I, 44, 45, 46, 47. 

Pressignian Epoch, II, 42. 

Pressigny flints, II, 63,* 
159. 

Pressure flaking, I, 177, 437. 

Prestwich, Sir Joseph, I, 16, 40, 64, 92, 93, 
94, 96, III, I12. 

Pretina (Cadiz), By 262.5 Diewass. 

Prigg, H., I, 41se 

Primates, I, 1, 294; distribution of, I, 298- 
310; fossil, I, 301-305; living, I, 305-310. 

Primay (Marne), I, 268.* 

Pronycticebus, I, 299, 302. 

Propliopithecus, I, 299, 304, 311; haeckelit, 
Te 304s 

Propstfels (Hohenzollern), II, 389. 

Prosimians, see Lemuride. 

Prothomo, I, 302. 

Proto-Etruscan Epoch, II, 229. 

Protohistoric Period, II, 183. 

Proto-Solutrean, I, 177. 

Provence, I], 88, 120. 

Pruniéres, II, 105, 160, 294. 

Pruning hooks and knives, II, 266.* 

Prunus avium, domestica, insititia, mahaleb, 
padus, and spinosa, II, 156. 

Prussia, II, 98, 210. 

Ptarmigan, I, $2, 193. 

Pueblo races, Il, 173. 

Puente-Arce (Santander), II, 408. 

Puento Viesgo (Santander), I, 399. 

Pumpkin, II, 158. 

Punches, I, 172, 174, Il, 23, 37, 47; 4¢ 

Punjab, Dhar. 

Pupa muscorum, I, 42. 

Purses, II, 212.* 

Puskaporos (Biikk Mts.), II, 304. 

Puy Courny, I, 87; de Boudieu, I, 87, 88, 
89,* oI. 

de Puydt, 


64-66, 70, 71, 


Marcel, I, 354. 


INDEX 


Pyorrhea, I, 344, 374, II, 160. 

Pyrenees, I, 143, 195, II, 88, 89, 91,* 235, 
254. 

Pyriae, II, 179. 

Pyrites, II, 137. 

Pyrus communis, II, 156; malus, II, 
156. 


155; 


Quartz, I, 127, 350, II, 48, 95, 114, 142; 
sand, Ii, 77: 


nartsite, 1, 137, 138," 141, 147, 152, II, 
GO, 147°; implements of, I, 115, 116,* 
386. 

Cjuaternary, I, 26, 27, 80, 104, 117, 314, 


320, 414, 434, II, 44; apes, I, 3c5; art, 
mural, I, 213-218; deposits, classification 
of, I, 44. 

de Quatrefages, I, 86, 87, II, 294. 

Queen’s Barrow, II, 287. 

Quercus, I, 53, II, 157; robur, II, 156. 

Quibell, II, 179. 

Quiberon, II, 124. 

Quimper, II, 82. 

Quina, La (Charente), I, 137, 138, 142, 145, 
435, 11, 94, 371; facies; I, 81; man of, 
I, 363-367, 377- 

Quintanal (Oviedo), I, 243, II, 413, 455. 


Rabbit, II, 60. 

Rabensburg, II, 232. 

RatteLl 142, 

Ragafz, I, 77. 

Ragazzoni, I, qrr. 

Ragunda, I, 67, 74. 

Ramp, LS 277; 

Rames, I, 87. 

Rameses II, 179. 

Ramparts, II, 237, 238; Neolithic, II, 64. 

Ramsauer, II, 230, 231. 

Rangifer tarandus, I, 180, 368. 

Ras Beyrouth, II, 48. 

Ras-el-Kelb, IT, 47. 

Rascafio (Santander), II, 413. 

Raspberry, II, 156. 

Rattles, attached to bridle, II, 75. 

Rauberhohle (Bavaria), II, 390. 

Raw materials, supplied by fauna ef Upper 
Paleolithic Period, I, 436. 

Raymonden (Dordogne), I, 194, 228, 236,* 
238,* 259, 280, II, 372, 439; man of, I, 
401-402, 406. 

Razors, II, 75, 186, 199, 216, 219, 246, 273, 
276*; bronze, II, 232; La Téne, II, 276.* 

Realism, in Paleolithic art, I, 218-225. 

Reber, II, 17. 

Rebiéres, Les (Dordogne), I, 137, 138, II, 
372, 439 

Reboux, I, 117, 413. 

Recent loess, I, 142, 143; time, I, 27, 299. 

Receptacles, II, 22. 

feck abe b. 422,423, 

Record, physical, of man during Stone Age, 
I, 435. 

Red Crag (Suffolk), I, 97, 98. 

Red deer (Cervus elaphus), I, 43, 228,* 251, 
268, 270, 271, 272, 391, 392, 393, 402, 
weet). ee Go, 161; in: Paleolithic art, I, 


436. 
“Red Lady of Paviland,” I, 394. 


507 


Red loess fauna, I, 118; ocher, I, 391, 392; 
uiartziteg it, 1237 seoea, 11,. 148. 

Ree Indians, II, 173. 

Reed float, II, 142. 

Regenbogenschusselchen, II, 267. 

Reggio, 1, 13.011, 188. 

Regnault, II, 6, 106.* 

Regulini-Galassi, tomb of, II, 229. 

Reichenhall, II, 252. 

Reilhac, II, 373. 

Reinach, S., II, 250, 419. 

Reindeer, I, 23,* 45, 47, 52, 54, 56, 64, 65, 
81, 147, 154, 165, 172, 174, 175, 176, 194, 
SLO, al istooe, oes ete.) 220, a s0, 1a she 
232," 237, 239, 244, 245, 253," 256, 268, 
269, 270, 271, 278, 288,* 289, 291, 354, 
356, 361, 363, 367, 368, 381, 410, 415, 
419, 420, 434, 435, 438, 439, II, 60, 170, 
r7t;) fauna, 1; 47, 63, 110; horn, [, 103, 
154, 155, 162, 163, 164, 165, 172, 174, 
355) 190, 0.196, 4192, 213; - 226, 228,*- “220, 
236,* 237," 260, 274,* 292, 436, II, 133 
140. 

Reinecke, II, 86. 

Reinerth, I, 15, II, 72, 87. 

Religion, in Bronze Age, II, 213-222; La 


Téne, II, 275-279; Paleolithic, II, 169- 
174; Stone Age, I, 437. 
Remouchamps (Liége), I, 195, II, 309. 


Renault, II, 160. 

Rephraim, ITI, 49. 

Reseda luteola, II, 46, 156. 

Resin, II, 215; fossil, II, 98. 

Retouches of accommodation, I, .113. 

Retouching, al eenOg wert 70e1 33015. 40,01 SG, 
I4ly 142, 143, 154, 159, 161, 163, 164, 
177,180, 302, 393; LL; 193; tools,.1, 101. 

Reverdin, II, 151. 

Revilla Camargo (Santander), I, 399. 

Rey (Dordogne), I, 282, II, 373, 439. 

Reygasse, I, 134. 

Rheindurkheim, II, 108. 

Rhine River and Valley, I, 45, 46, 47, 53, 
O35 OA LL woot Olmo ln 224, e255,e cole 20s 

Rhinoceros, 1, 22,152, §6, 57, 260, 270, 278; 
314, 333, 372, 396, 409, 410, 413, 420, 
422, 438; etruscus, I, 39, 47, 53, 63, 81, 
105, 109, I14, 320, 333, 434; leptorhinus, 
I, 63; mauritanicus, I, 127; merckii, I, 43, 
46, “54, ° 57, .63;. Si, 105, 120, 116, A125, 
142, 165, 333, 341, 346, 347, 350, 352, 434; 

schleiermacheri, I, 87; tichorhinus, I, 43, 48, 
52, 64, 143, 165, 180, 361, 434; woolly, 
I, 45, 52, 56, 65, 81, 93, 118, 152, 160, 
221," 229,", 245, 341, 354, 356, 359, 368, 
396, 408, 415, 419. 

Rhodesia, I, 369; man of, I, 369-372, 436. 

Rhododendron ponticum, I, 41. 

Rhone basin, I, 126; glacier, I, 77; River, 
fees pe rs Valleyen let 43,0 dls, 2678 

Ribeiro, I, 86. 

Riberot Valley (Ariége), II, 230. 

Rideaux, Les, II, 373, 439. 

Ridgeway, II, 182. 

Riedschachen, II, 73. 

Riera, La (Asturias), II, 413. 

Riesengebirge, I, 54. 

Rigny (Sadne-et-Loire), I, 179. 

Rigollot, I, 16, 111, 112. 

Rings, II, 119, 201, 202, 204, 208, 222, 268, 


508 


272, 273," a7": bronze, Il, 75, 2233 gold, 
II, 288; used as medium of exchange, II, 


75 
Riss Glacial Epoch, I, 36, 37, 41, 47, 48, 49, 
50,8 00; 01,404, B07) 8O2s 63, O44 nos nme ase 
Riss-Wurm Interglacial Epoch I, 36, 37, 47, 


48, 50, 57, 60, 61, 77, 79, 83, 84, 141, 
348, 433. 

Rissoa ulve, I, 39. 

Ritualistic decorations, II, 245-246. 

River” driit, 15° 35-20;u.33¢ 

Riveting, II, 193. 

Rivets, all> 256502502 

Riviére, Emile, Lo Bay 213, 2025s eo, 


390, 392, 420; II, 7. 
Riviére (Landes), II, 373; de Tulle, II, 430. 
Rixdorf beds, I, 54. 

Robenhausen (Switzerland), II, 71, 92, 

140, 143, 157. 

Robenhausian Epoch, I, 27, II, 42, 44-47, 

66, 153,-155,, 150, 1575 potsuerds, 1, ata. 
Ryo TALS IL oprah, 

Robin Hood (Derbyshire), II, 421. 
Roc de Combe-Capelle, Le (Dordogne), 

374; de St.-Christophe (Dordogne), 


96,” 


IT, 
II, 


374. 

Roc, Le (Charente), II, 374, 439. 

Roche-au-Loup, La (Yonne), II, 375. 

Roche-Cotard, La, cave of, II, 65. 

Rochebertier, II, 375. 

de Rochebrune, I, 137. 

Roches, Les (Dordogne), II, 375, 439. 

Rochette, La (Dordogne), Il, 376; man of, 
I, 398. 

Rock paintings, II, 93; shelters, I, 20-24, 
1305 TST, sj2.5 £30,eete, loo OOTmoae 

Rodents, I, 278, 438. 

Roebuck, Wl, 270; 278) 438, LE, «114813; 254 4 0- 

Roe deer, II, 60. 

Roellecourt (Pas-de-Calais), I, 200. 

Rokitansky, I, 414. 

Roland quarry, II, 53. 

Rolling pins, under sleds, II, 1409. 

Romanelli (Otranto), II, 399, 445. 

Romans, 15713; 304, Il; 268: 

Rome, II, 286; University of, I, 4rr. 

Roémhild, II, 237. 

Rondelles, II, 120; cranial, II, 150; pierced, 
L277 

Ropes, thick, II, 92. 

RGSaie Lamers 

Rosa canina, II, 156. 

Roseaux, Les; Il, 183957187. 

Rosenstein (Wutrttemberg), II, 390. 

Rosmeur (Penmarc’h), II, 88.* 

Rossen type pottery, II, 87,* 89.* 

Rossillon (Ain), I, 402. 

Rostro-carinate flints, I, 98, 

Rother Berg, I, 396. 

Roura, Don Lorenzo, I, 357. 

Roussignol (Lot), II, 376, 440. 

Route de Boves, I, 104,* 105. 

Routes, trade, II, 211-212, 251. 

Rovise, II, 232. 

Royal College of Surgeons, I, 350, 411, 419; 
Danish Museum of Antiquities, I, 13; Irish 
Academy Museum, II, 144. 

Rubbing stones, I, 157. 

Rubble, I, 33, 34. 

Rubus fruticosus, II, 156; ideus, II, 156. 


Ioo. 





INDEX 


Rudders, II, 145; earliest, II, 148. 
Rue de Cagny, Saint Acheul, I, 105,* 106,* 


Til seed 145s et oO se 
Rumania, I, 436; Aurignacian stations in, I, 
170. 


Ruminants, I, 270, 271, 278. 

Rumlaug, near Zurich, II, 83. 

Rusa deer, I, 314. 

Russia, I, 54, 58, 145, 266, 438, 11, 61, 2zeq 
295, 296, 297; Aurignacian in, I, 166, 171; 
Magdalenian in, I, 200, 205; Mousterian 
in, I, 151; Paleolithic. art "ia, 
Paleolithic sites in, II, 403-406; transi- 
tional cultures in, II, 18. 

Ruth, Le (Dordogne), I, 177, II, 377. 

Ritimeyer, II, 139. 

Rutot, I, 18, 93, 10%, 140, 159, 381, 418, 
II, 42, 53, 55. 

Rye, 11, 154, 

Rygh, I, 75. 

Rzehak, I, 368. 


Saber-toothed tiger, I, 39, 52, <2, 434. 

Sablon (Montigny), I, 83. 

Sacken, von, II, 230,* 
246.* 

Sacrifice, human, at death, II, 28s. 

Saddles, II, 258.* 

Safety pins, Hallstattian, II, 245.* 

Sagaie, I, 18s. 

Sagard, II, 158. 

Sagittal sections of skull, I, 295,* 296.* 

Sahara, I, 123, 434; Chellean and Acheulian 
Stations in, I, 128. 


231," 2375" s2agee 


_Sahure, King, tomb of, II, 147-148. 
,Saiga antelope, I, 194, 278, 438. 


Sakkarah, II, 213. 

Salies-de-Béarn (Basses-Pyrénées), II, 235; 
-du-Salat (Haute-Garonne), II, 235. 

Salins (Jura), II, 236, 247.* 


‘Salisbury Plain, I, 97. 


salisbury, R. D., Tesi,7om 


Salisbury (Wilts), I, 94, 96. 


Salitré (Santander), II, 413, 455. 

Salix, II, 157; polaris, I, 30. 

Salle-les-Cabardes, man of, I, 368. 

Salmon, I, 228,* 281, 283, 284, 438, Il, ) rao, 
294; vertebre of, I, 392. 

Salonica, II, 180. 

Salpétriére, cave of, I, 284, II, 7. 

Salt, II, 59, 209; crystallization of, in Hall- 
stattian Epoch, II, 238; factory sites for, 
II, 238; mines’ of, II, 230, 238; supply, II, 


235, 

Salzach, I, 34). 47: 

Salzburg, II, 59, 200. 

Salzkammergut, II, 230. 

Samaria, I], “40: 

Sambucus ebulus, II, 46, 156; nigra, II, 156. 
Samland, peninsula of, II, 98. 
Samuelsson, I, 72. 

San Antonio (Oviedo), II, 455. 
San Egidio (Umbria); II, 399. 
San Garcia (Burgos), II, 456, 
‘San Isidro, ¥,719,- 227." 

San Pantaleon (Santander), II, 
:Sandegren, R., I, 72, 74. 
‘Sandron (Liége), II, 310. 
,sangamon Epoch, I, 57, 61. 
Sangatte, I, 46,47, 63, 64, 65. 


412. 


INDEX 


Sankt Margarethen (Carniola), II, 232. 

Sansan, I, 304. 

Saata ‘Lucia, II, 232. 

Santerno River, Emilia, I, 18. 

Santian (Santander), I, 262, II, 456. 

Santis Range, I, 57, 76. 

Saone Valley, Il, 63, 281. 

Saone-et-Loire, II, 63. 

Sapajou, white-throated, I, 301.* 

Sarajevo, II, 61, go. 

Sarauw, G., II, 11. 

Satiitiaee li Or 18d, 192, 195, 205. 

Sargome le lle 51; palace of, II, 181, 183. 

Sarsen stones, II, 125, 127, 128. 

Sassnitz, I, 91. 

Saucepans, II, 265. 

Saumur (Marne-et-Loire), II, 1109. 

Saut-du-Perron (Loire), Il, 440. 

Sautuola, I, 23, 213. 

Sauve (Gard), I, 53. 

Savignac-du-Bugue, I, 360. 

Savigné, II, 440. 

SavOVselesO7, 91525. 197% 

Savoyeux (Haute-Saéne), II, 236. 

Saws, l,0g00, 133, 133, 185, 11, 23, 37, 47; 
AS, “192, 7.202. 

Saxicavae, Ll, 70. 

Saxonian Epoch, I, 54, 60, 61. 

Saony, 1, 64, 11,89, 115; 183, 237- 

Scabbards, II, 253; Hallstattian types, II, 
240;)4n0n, IT, 283:* 

Scale, in Paleolithic art, I, 226. 

Scandinavia, I, 52, 73, Il, 38, 42, 88, 80, 
98, 143, 163, 197, 202, 205, 208, 211, 220, 
221, 230, 242, 286, 287; Neolithic of, 
II, 23-42; Pleistocene history of, I, 66-72, 
74; postglacial and cultural chronology of, 
I, 72-76. 

Seana). 68,770, 74, Ll, 13, 14, 22, 215. 

Scanian Epoch, I, 52, 60, 61. 

Scarabelli, I, 18. 

Scardon Valley, I, 66. 

Schaffhausen, I, 50,* 57, 351, 379, 405- 

Schafis (Chavannes), II, 72, 154. 

Schelde River, I, 63. 

Schenk, II, 95, 295. 

Schist, II, 97, 271. 

Schlaginhaufen, I, 4os. 

Schlaigneaux, cave of, II, 106. 

Schleswig, II, 137,* 145, 146, 200. 

Schleswig-Holstein, I, 58, 73. 

Schliemann, II, 178, 210. 

Schliz, II, 62, 296. 

Schlosser, F, 52, 304, 311. 

Schmerling, I, 22, 409. 

Seummdin rt, 15,653; 11, If, 93*; R. R., I, 
g4pea7, 140,210, 348, Il, 18, 72, 73, 74° 
Vigdy 86 

Schmidtgen, O., I, 254. 

Schnurkeramik, II, 62, 86. 

Schétensack, I, 34, 53, 319, 320. 

Schotterfelder, I, 33. 

Schatz, II, 157. 

Sennoter, (C., Il, rss, 156. 

Schuchert, Charles, I, 28. 

Schuchhardt, II, 128. 

Schussenquelle (Wiirttemberg), II, 390, 444. 

Schussenried (Wiirttemberg), II, 73, 74, 87.* 

Schwab, F., II, 250. 

Schwalbe, I, 341, 344, 346, 352, 380. 





509 


Schweinfurth, I, 170. 

Schweizersbild (Schaffhausen), I, 
156, 417, 457- 

Scissors, II, 274; La Téne, II, 276.* 

Sciurus vulgaris, I, 48, 194. 

SCOtCM till eens 72 

Scotland, II, 142, 192, 253, 206; Azilian of, 


50, LT, 


II, 7; climatic oscillations in, I, 58-59; 
crannogs of, II, 69; glacial and _ inter- 
glacial phases in, I, 58-59; transitional 


cultures in, II, 16, 18. 

Scrapers, I, 27, 88, 89,* 90, 98,* 99,* 101, 
TOS BLOOM Tile bl S,6e 7. 139.0 04201 49,81455 
555. 3457 3 300-8307, 420,436, 11) er, 37, 
AA, AAO OSS On Lol sro2e echeulian, 
heel Ohms 2 aaCaniniater slain a discoidall, 
Bess Soe inte, Lie ors e145  Niousterian, 
I, 133, 134,. 135, 136,” 137%; notched, I, 
TAT. 

scratcherss 10127, (161; 106, "fri, 113,.. 333, 
162, 165, 180; 385, 234, 237, 345,” 388, 
303, Ll, 9; Acheulian, [, 120"; carinate, 
Tee r62, 0163, 164." 165) dint, L1,e138- 

Scrobicularia clay, I, 75. 

Scrobicularia piperata, I, 39, Il, 15. 

Sculptures lens seer Oe me same le ere eo 
cup-shaped, II, 40; in the round, I, 437; 
lapidarian, II, 40; megalithic, II, 100-102; 
Neolithic, II, 40, 99-102, 221. 

Scutching, II, 93. 

Scutiform motive, II, tor, 103,* 104,* 118. 

Scythes, II, 265, 266.* 

Sea gull, Il, 24; shells, 
Shells. 

Sea-level, changes of, Pleistocene, I, 70. 

Seas, le Aes GOA. He. WWI WS. sey 

Seas, invasion of, I, 64. 

Second Glacial Epoch, I, 51, 54, 60, 61, 62, 
84; Interglacial Epoch, I, 49, 51, 54, 84. 

Seeds, II, 46. 

Seeley, I, 94. 

Segovia, II, 295. 

Sehested, II, 37, 4o. 

Seille, Valley of, II, 238. 

Seine River and Valley, I, 40, 63, 88, 99, 
119, II, 256, 281; geological section of, 
eer. y 

Seine-et-Marne, I, 1og, II, 83. 

Selenka Expedition, I, 316. 

Sellin, II, 49. 

Selsey Bill, I, 64. 

Semitics, II, 50. 

Semnopithecus, I, 299, 305, 309. 

Senses, I, 2. 

Serdab, II, 123. 

Sergeac, I, 262, II, 171, 379. 

Sernander, R., I, 72, 74. 

Serpentine, II, 95, 107. 

Serpents, II, 216, 261*; double-headed, II, 
242. 

de Serres, Marcel, I, 409. 

Servais, Il, 47, 55. 

Sesostris III, mortuary boat of, II, 148. 

Setaria italica, II, 155. 

Seti I, II, 179. 

Shafts, If, 13; bone, I]; 12;% 14.7 

Shaping stones, II, 48. 

Shara Osso Goh, man of, I, 372. 

Shaving, I], 199, 274. 

Shears, sheep, II, 153; see also Scissors, 


I, 304; see also 


510 


Sheaths, Hallstattian, II, 241. 

Sheep, II, 60; domesticated, II, 35, 45, 46, 
151, 153, 154, 156; wild, I, 279, 438. 

Shell beads, II, 95, 222; fish, II, 15, 24, 140; 
heaps, I, 12, 75. 

Shells, I, 158, 384,* 433, 444, II, 97, 141, 
223; as ornaments, II, 95, 140, 222; belts 
of, I, 386; débris of, II, 77; imitations of, 
II, 97; marine nonremanié, I, 98; per- 
forated, I, 157,* 211, 387, 388, 389,* 390, 
392, 393, 394, II, 48, 216, 277. 

Shelly gravel pit, I, 93. 

Shensi, China, artifacts of, I, 372. 

Sherborne (Dorset), II, 421. 

Sherds, II, 48, 63. 

Shields, II, 146, 197,* 217, 283, 287, 288; 
La Téne, II, 255, 257-259. 

Shimek, I, 43. 

Ships, II, 141-148; burials in, 11, 146, 147, 
148; Egyptian, II, 147-148; seagoing, ear- 
liest, II, 147; Viking, II, 145, 146, 147%; 
votive, II, 207. 

Shore-lines, ancient, as basis of classification, 
Oz: 

Shrew, II, 60. 

Shrubsole, I, 94, 95. 

Siam, II, 148. 

Siberia, I, 195, 439; Magdalenian of, I, 196,* 
201, 202, 204. 

Siberian facies, of Magdalenian, I, 195. 

Sicilian stage, I, 62. 

sicily, I, 54, Il, 53. 

Sickles, II, 182, 188, 199-200, 220, 265, 266.* 

Siem,, Li“) 216, 8217. 

Sierra, I, 399. 

Sierra Ministra, I, 114; Morena, II, 7. 

Siffre, 1) 368: 

Sigmoid motive, II, 253, 256; in Paleolithic 
art, 1, 287. 

Silbury Hill, II, 125. 

Silesia, II, 91, 159, 207, 267, 287. 

Silk, IT, 93. 

Silkworm, II, 93. 

DlltS leo 4 ea Os 

Silver, II, 175, 180-181, 204, 205, 252, 268, 
27-1272 Saito emt Bre 

Simia, I, 299, 309; satyrus, I, 330.* 

Simiidae, I, 294, 302, 309, 311. 

Sinai peninsula, II, 177. 

Sinapis arvensis, II, 157. 

Sinel, I, 368. 

Sirkers, net, II, 39, 181. 

Siphnos, IJ, 181. 

Sipka (Moravia), I, 142, II, 315; man of, I, 
354. 

Siret brothers, II, 192, 205, 295. 

Sirgenstein (Wiirttemberg), I, 140, 142, 210, 
W530 ie 

Situlae, II, 218, 231, 250; Hallstattian types, 
JOE Fyut, Syey 

Sivapithecus indicus, I, 305. 

Siwalik Hills, I, 305. 

Skallerup, II, 218. 

Skin, painting and tattooing of, II, 94. 

Skinning tools, I, 133, 145. 

Skins, inflated, IT, 142. 

Skivespalter, I, 73. 

Skjelskor, II, ror. 

Skull, areas of, I, 3; Azilian-Tardenoisian, 
II, 292-293; Broken Hill, I, 369, 370, 371%; 


INDEX 


Chapelle-aux-Saints, I, 361-362; crushers, 
II, 23; Gibraltar, I, 350-351; Krapina, I, 
347*; modern, I, 296*; Neandertal, I, 352- 


353; Piltdown, II, 323, 324, 325, i320," 
328, 329, 331, 333, 334, 335, 338, 339; 
Pithecanthropus, I, 315; Spy, I, 3553 


Svaerdborg, II, 12. 

Slagen, I, 75. 

Slates Lin oS: 

Slater, I, 421. 

Sleds, II, 145; runners of, II, 71; use of, 
II, 149. 

Slingstones, I, 101, 134, 137. 

Smell, I, 2. 

Smelting, II, 176, 178, 179, 180, 181. 

Smith, G. Elliot, I, 2, 3, 325, 329, 339, 424, 
Il, 123, 147; 148, ;205-" 

Smith, R. A., I, 267, \Tijes2, oo.eee 

Smith, S.A hare. 

Smith, Worthington G., I, 97, 118. 

Smith, W. T.,\L, 120. 

Smoked pottery, technique of, II, 80. 

Smoothing iron, ax in form of, II, 91. 

Smyth, Warrington, II, 148. 

snake, 1) 284, 438. 

Snow line, I, 31, 38, 41, 42. 

Societal organization, II, 22. 

Société d’Anthropologie de Paris, I, 417. 

Socket, staghorn, for stone axes, II, 69, 70,* 
71. 

Soesum, Zealand, II, 137.* 

Sofoxo (Asturias), II, 414, 

“Soil, flowing,” I, 30. 

Solar barks, II, 144.* 

Sole, II, 24. 

Sollas, I, 110, 167, 394. 

Solomon, King, II, 49. 

Solutré (Sadéne-et-Loire), I, 172, 176, 178,* 
211, 406, II, 379, 440; Aurignacian man 
at, I, 398-399; culture sequence at, I, 
194." 

Solutrean Epoch, I, 27, 84, 154, 172-183, 210, 
211, 219, 265, 268, 287, 396, 412, 433; 
434, 436, 439, II, 7, 138; culture in, I, 
180-183; fauna of, I, 180; houses in, I, 
173; implements in, I, 174; industry in, I, 
65, 180; man in, I, 58, 63, 175, 210, 399- 
400, 406,* 407; stations, I, 173; type sta- 
tion of, I, 170-176. 

Somersetshire, I, 414. 

Somme-Bionne (Marne), II, 277, 280,* 282*; 
chariot burial of, II, 283. 

Somme River and Valley, I, 19, 40, 45, 46, 
47, 63, 64, 65, 66, 104," 105, 100, )2e0). 
112, 118, 126, 143, 148; Pleistocene his- 
tory of, I, 62-66; terraces of, I, 16, 64, 
On Seige 

Sommesous, II, 271.* 

Sora (Caserta), I, 18. 

Sorbus aucuparia, II, 156. 

Sorcerer, sculpture of, I, 244; Trois-Fréres, 
1, -252," 1h se, 

Sordes (Landes), I, 192,* 287, II, 379, 4413 
man of, I, 402. 

Sorex vulgaris, I, 180, 194. 

Sotarriza, La (Santander), II, 456. 

Soucy (Dordogne), I, 236,* II, 380, 441. 

Soudan, II, 121, 179. 

Soudour, I, 79. 

Sous-Sac (Azin), ITI, 380. 


INDEX 


South Africa, I, 123, 434; Chellean and 
Acheulian stations in, I, 128. 

South America, I, 299, II, 83; primates in, 
iea02,4900,.tripes of, 1; 192. 

South Downs, I, 92, 93, 94, 96, 327. 

Spades, II, 157, 220. 


Spain, I, 138,* 145; 158, 213, 234; 240,” 
Gea, 200,- 260, 271, 273, 274, 275, (277; 
278, 279, 280, 284, 286, 290, 356, 405, 


434, 436, 438, 439, II, 7, 53, 59, 88, 93, 
102, 121, 140, 144, 172, 177, 179, 180, 
PoreerOs sy 2050221, 1222, 230,  235,°.254; 
267. 256, 267, 205; Acheulian in, I, 127; 
Avrienacian in; I, 166, 171; Azilian in, 
Pea Chellcansin, 2127; cultures: of 
Europe in, I, 123; Magdalenian in, I, 200, 
202, 204, 205; Mousterian in, I, 151, 153; 
Paleolithic art in, II, 446-457; Paleolithic 
sites in, II, 406-414; Pre-Chellean in, I, 
109; transitional cultures in, II, 18. 

Spanish mackerel, I, 281, 438, II, 140. 

Spatulae, I, 174; bone, II, 5s. 

Spearheads, II, 23, 27, 36, 38; iron, II, 182; 
prototype of, I, 135. 

Spear points, II, 23. 

Spears, II, 146, 257, 263.* 

Speech, I, 1, 4, 325. 

Spelt, II, 157. 

Spermophilus rufescens, I, 48, 143, 194. 

Spezzia, JI, ‘221. 

Spiennes (Hainaut), I, 106, II, 53, 54, 55, 
60, 310. 

Spiennian Epoch, II, 42, 46. 

Spinal column, chimpanzee and human con- 
trasted, I, 294-295. 

Spindle whorls, II, 75, 92, 207, 218, 277. 

Spinning, II, 92, 93. 

Spiral motive, II, 1o2, 189,* 191. 

Spirals, II, 63, 86, 223; in Paleolithic art, 
L287, 

Spits, I, 243, 253, 264, 280,* 281. 

Spitsbergen, I, 57. 

Spitz (Lower Austria), I, 399. 

Spokes, use of, II, 150. 

Spokeshaves, I, 80,* 99, 101, 111, 113, 133, 
Fag roach 21, 44; notched, I, 141. 

Spools, II, 75. 

Spoons, II, 272. 

Spruce, I, 39. 

Spugo (Haute-Garonne), II, 381, 441. 

Spurrell, I, 121, 122. 

Spurs, IT; 284. 

Spy (Namur), I, 142, 164, 177, 435, II, 311; 
man of, I, 354-356, 357.* 

Squash, II, 158. 

patter: E..G,, II;-163: 

Squirrel, II, 216. 

St.-Acheul, I, 16, 46, 48, 82,* 98, 104,* 105,* 
LOG mtr. o1T2, 11 5,* FITS, 119," 120," I2T,” 
fae as Ll. 377s. type section at, JI, 
80. 

St.-Aubin-en-Charollais, II, 69, 71, 72, 141, 
T43." 

St.-Blaise (Neuchatel), II, 66, 155, 156, 188. 

preccormely, I, 113. 

St. Gaudens, I, 304. 

St.-Germain Museum, I, 23, 86, 128, 364, 
II, 105, 150, 168, 170, 193, 238, 253, 462. 

St.-Girons (Ariége), I, 237. 

St. Guidon, II, 113. 


S17 


St.-Honoré, II, 218. 

St.-Just-des-Marais (Oise), II, 377. 

St. Louis Exposition, II, 138. 

St.-Marcel (Indre), II, 377-378, 440. 

St. Martin, II, 47. 

St.-Martin d’Excideuil (Dordogne), I, 178,* 
DFG. 

St.-Martory (Haute-Garonne), II, 6. 

St.-Maur-des-Fosses, II, 107. 

St.-Mihiel (Meuse), II, 440. 

St.-Moritz, II, 218. 

dé’ vot.-Perier, RR: 1, 256, 2825. 283. 

St.-Pierre-en-Chastre (Oise), II, 264. 

St.-Pierre Island, II, 143. 

St.-Pierre-Quiberon, IJ, 129. 

St.-Prest (Eure-et-Loire), I, 86, 106, II, 378. 

St.-Prix, II, 66. 

St.-Remo Museum, Toulouse, II, 230. 

St.-Rémy, II, 255. 

St.-Sernin (Aveyron), II, 101.* 

St. Sulpice (Vaud), II, 69, 279. 

St.-Symphosien (Belgium), II, 137.* 

de St.-Venante, II, 65, 159. 

Ste.-Barbe, II, 129. 

Ste.-Colombe, II, 243. 

Ste.-Eulalie (Lot), II, 440. 

Ste.-Gertrude, II, 55. 

Ste.-Walburge (Liége), II, 310. 

Staadorf (Upper Palatinate), II, 224. 

Stafford, II, 288. 

Stag-head, I, 235*; motive, I, 224. 

Stagitorn, Io 1s. 27, 2rzs262, Li, 5,°o, 76," 
215 02355250650; 03,0105, SAT, 2085 socket 
for stone axes, II, 69, 70,* 71. 

mtags, 1, °57, 125, 222," 228,*.230, 253, 283, 
341, 346, 356, 367, 413, Il, 4, 7, 11, 25, 
AG, (201.5 

Stalagmite, I, 293. 

Starboard, II, 147. 

Stationary art, I, 293. 

Statue menhirs, II, 221. 

Statuettes, lead, II, 181. 

Stature, Mousterian, I, 376. 

Statzendorf (near Herzogenburg), II, 232. 

Steatite, II, 95, 222. 

Steatopygy, I, 407. 

Steckborn, “EI,.-155,. 156, 157. 

Steel, II, 182. 

Steenstrup, -I, 13,.86, II, 24, 25. 

Stegodon, I, 314, 324, 328, 333. 

Steinbichl, II, 287. 

Steinsburg (Thiringen), II, 237, 238. 

Stela, II, 235. 

Stennis, II, 128. 

Steppe, faunas, I, 434. 

Sterjna, II, 42. 

Stick, throwing, II, 139. 

Stillfried, II, 232. 

Stillingfleet, Rev. E. W., II, 287. 

Stimuli, mental, reaction to, I, 5. 

Stirrups, I, 80. 

Stockholm, I, 70; Museum, II, 197. 

Stockis, oE., 11; 115. 

Stocky, II, go. 

Stone, II, 128. 

Stone Age, I, 9, 13, 27, 75, 156, II, 45, 49, 
138, 175, 179, 210, 436; culture complex 
of, II, 133-174; dates of, I, 76; divisions 
of, I, 25, 434; hunting implements of, 
II, 139; religion in, I, 437. 


wy 


Stone circles, II, 124, 125, 126, 128; graves 
epoch, II, 23, 28-42; polishing of, I, 156- 
157s 

Stonehenge, II, 125-128, 463. 

Stones with cupules, II, 462. 

SLO Weel Lope vice 

Sirabowll 210. 

Stradonitz, II, 251, 252, 260, 264, 272," 274. 

Strangled blades, I, 162, 163,* 165. 

Strassbourg, I, 158. 

Stratigraphic records, I, 432. 

Stratiotes websteri, I, 53. 

Straw Derry lige i 5450 50. 

Strepy wel ly ase 

Strike-a-lights, II, 137.* 

String ornamentation, II, 87.* 

Strings; ive ase twisted sll. o2. 

Strobel, II, 188. 

Stubai Valley, I, 38. 

Stubbendorf, II, 193.* 

Stukeley, II, 125. 

Stuttgart Museum, I, 408. 

Stylistic art, examples of, by Magdalenian 
artists, I, 437. 

Styria lomeaa: 

Sub-Atlantic period, I, 72, 74. 

Sub-boreal period, I, 72, 74. 

Submergences, I, 56, 57, 58, 63, 68, 60, 71, 


73- 

Subsidences, II, 25. 

Succinea, I, 45; oblonga, I, 42. 

Sittolkl | noon rs, A202 

Sul plane lesa. 

Sulzberg, 11, 75. 

Sumatra, I, 309. 

Sun, cult of, II, 208, 213-218, 240. 

Sun-patrieee il ees Ts 

Sundforlund, Zealand, II, 137.* 

Sunflower, II, 158. 

Sun’s disk, on situlae, II, 250. 

Surean, len (Namiut), elles it. 

Surgery, 11, 23, 160," 160.7 216, 
Trephining, 

Sursey, Laos. 

Sus, II) 25; scrofa, I, 127, 384; scrofa do- 
MeStICUS ST l) eIsAs SCVOTG Ter us melts 
scrofa palustris, II, 152, 154; scrofa pris- 
Cus, 1, 320; 

Susanmelllemsciey 

pussex,. EO 62,710%1052 350 bly 57% 

Sutz (Bienne), II, 66, 72, 154. 

Svaerdborg,, II,.12;- 13, 14; 

Swan, I, 279, 438, Il, 24, 171, 215-216, 217, 
21S, . 220.8250. 

Swanscombe (Kent), I, 109, II, 322; Hill, 
17-93: 

Swastika, II, 218, 220, 279. 

Sweden, I, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 74, II, 30, 35, 
38, 53; 98, T19g, 121, £37," 153, 205, 212, 
220, 296; mining in, II, 59. 

Sweet potatoes, II, 158. 

Switzerland, I, 33,* 49, 76, 141, 145, 195, 
276, 277, 278, 302, 405, 439, II, 16, 19, 
22, 65, 66, 67, 68,* 69,* 75, 92, 108, 140,” 
153) 1BGe T54, 155, 157s) 150m 1530 0l oe, 
187, I91, 200, 207, 209, 212, 213, 222, 
229, 232," 236, 239, 247, 248, 249,* 254, 
267, 271, 272, 283,* 285,* 286, 295; burials 
in, II, 287; lake dwellings in, II, 67-75, 
92, 98-99, 142; Magdalenian in, I, 200, 


see also 


INDEX 


202, 204, 205, 206, 439; Mousterian in, I, 
151; Neolithic in, II, 44-47, 71-72; Paleo- 
lithic art in, II, 457; Paleolithic sites in, 
II, 414-418; transitional cultures in, II, 
19. 

Swords, II, 146, 185, 192, 193-195, 196,* 
209, 220, 222, 223, 224, 246, 251, 25a—-e58. 
257, 281; antennae, I, 275" bronzer. 
II, 218, 240; Hallstattian) Il, 240cmacons 
II, 182, 232, 2353 long, Ley 
short, Il, 183, 232: 

Symbolism, I, 287; in Paleolithic art, I, 286. 

Symbols, II, 40; astral, II, 277; sun, I], 217. 

Symington, I, 325. 

Syria, I, 434; Il, 50, 110, 121; 148; Achenlian 
in, I, 129; Aurignacian in, I, 171; Chel 
lean in, I, 1209; cultures “of Asiagames: 
123; Magdalenian in, I, 201; Mousterian 
haley ly sales 

Szalacska, II, 262. 

Szeleta (Szinva Valley), II, 394. 


Tabaterie (Dordogne), II, 381. 

Table des Marchands, II, 101, 
118. 

Tables, oak, II, 253. 

Pattetay Wil seoss 

Tagus Valley, I, 86, 87. 

Tajo de las Figuras, El (Cadiz), II, 456. 

Talgai, mani ot, 1je406: 

Talismans, II, 279. 

Tally, hunter’s,, D055) 102s5220sue soe 

Talpa europea, I, 48, 194. 

Talus; I; 30; 45, 146- 

Tambukis, II, 172. 

Gamnytizae. base 

Tapes decussatus, I, 73. 

Tapes stage, I, 71, 73, 74, 75+ 

Tapestry; licence 

Lapirs, I, 68, 314 

Tarascon (Ariéege), I, 7o. 

Tardenoisian Epoch, I, 27, 84, If, 3, 7, 9-11, 
57, 72, 291; geographic distribution of, II, 
16-19; man of, II, 292—294. 

Tarn, Department of, II, 99, 100, 221. 

Tarn-et-Garonne, II, 65. 

Tarsiidae, I, 299. 

Tarsius, I, 2. 

Tasmania,” Ijaee: 

Tasmanians, I, 88, 90, 102, II, 136. 

Tassels, II, 45. 

‘Fata (Hungaryje 0, ese 

Tattegrain, pit, Livni: 

Tattooing, I, 212, 11, 03)>so4,meee 

Taubach, I, 81, 141, 305, 320, 340, 341, 346, 
433, 435, II, 391-392. 

Taxus baccata, \i,2ts7- 

Vay Valley lagsye 

Tchikalenko, I, 187. 

Technique, of Neolithic potter, II, 78. 

Tectiform signs, in Paleolithic art, I, 291- 
292. 

Teeth, I, 308; Broken Hill, I, 369; diseases 
of, I, 344, 350, 370, 374, II, 160; Heidel- 
berg, I, 322; imitation, made by Neolithic 
man, II, 97; Mousterian, I, 3733; per- 
forated, I, 155," 156," 292, a2ty eames 
14, 23, 72, 97,. 275, 277, 398; Piltaown 
I, 324, 326,* 328," (330en ag ceenee 
333, 335, 336, 337, 338, 329%; Pithecanthro- 


103,* ot yee 


INDEX 


pus; 1, 315; Taubach, I, 346; Weimar, I, 
342, 344, 347- 

Tegelen, I, 53. 

Meier pit. 1, rie, 110," 127. 

Tellina baltica, I, 39. 

Temporal areas, of skull, I, 3. 

Terme Pialat (Dordogne), II, 441. 

Terra cotta, I, 209. 

Terraces, I, 45, 46; alluvial, I, 59; fluvio- 
Piacial, 1,64; fiver, I, 62, 80; Somme, 
Pero oe to. ot1r-; valley, I, 19,*. 64, 
66,2157." 

Terremare, I, 
204. 

Terrestrial habits, I, 297, 298; life, adapta- 
tion of human structure to, I, 294-298. 

‘Lersise, IT, 232. 

leuiaryertra si, 26,27. 76, 81,.-104,. 301, 
312, 434; birth of man in, I, 431. 

Tessin, Canton of, II, 232. 

Testut, I, 402, 407. 

Tetraprothomo, I, 302. 

Textiles, II, 22, 45, 47, 69, 72, 75, 91-94, 
90," 97," 133,. 155. 

heviatevbordorgne), Ll, 186," 216, 222," 223, 
aA acee OS." 28r,. 297, 1]; 170, 171; 
Legal, AAT. 

Teyler Museum, I, 319. 

Thales of Miletus, II, 209. 

Thames River and Valley, I, 40, 53, 56, 63, 
Goie oe ee err, 256,250. 

Thanetian formation, I, ror. 

Dhasos. Ll, 267. 

poavyugen, 1, 220," +11, 75, 171. 

Thebes, II, 82. 

Theil, Le (Loir-et-cher), II, 9. 

Thenac (Charente-Inférieure), II, 64. 

Thenay (Loire-et-Cher), I, 86. 

Theophrastus, II, 209. 

Thettord, II, 72. 

Tinelle River, li; (250, 255.* 

Thieullen, I, 209. 

iicdmGlaciiebpoch, 1, 51, 56,60, 61, 62, 
Say os41, sluterglacial Epoch, I, 49, 51; 57, 
84. 

‘ehomset, (.) J. 0,13, 25, Ll, 24, 183. 

Thorington Hall, I, 97, 98. 

Thorlacius, I, 12: 

Thorsbjerg (Schleswig), II, 137.* 

Thotmes III, II, 178. 

‘hharace tl; Tro, 180,)181. 

‘Dhread, Ii;> 45,92. 

Throwing stick, II, 139. 

Thuizy (Marne), II, 285. 

“‘Thunderstones,” I, 11, 12. 

Tiber River, I, 18. 

Tiger, saber-toothed, I, 39, 52, 53, 434. 

Tigris Valley, II, 178, 227. 

vibuty. le 05e;s,man of, I; 415. 

Tilia cordata, II, 156; platyphyllos, II, 156. 

ul, 1,* $3: 

Tilloux (Charente), II, 382. 

Timan Mts., I, 54. 

Tin, IT, 59, 177, 178-179, 208, 209. 

Tinder box, wooden, II, 137.* 

Tire, metal, II, 150. 

Tischler, O, II, 250. 

miyara Mts:, Il, 18x. 

Tlingit Indians, II, 173. 

Tobacco, II, 158. 


* 


perme 1 OOye LO75 8 Oo, 


ahs} 


Toggles, I, 193,195." 

Toilet articles, II, 204, 
Pere? - Mse27.6," 

Toillez, II, 54. 

Tomba a pogzo, II, 234; del Duce, II, 229; 
del Guerriero, II, 229. 

Lombswel lee 7Oe2Ot 2O5-8 207 set alistatt. i, 
231; ornamentation on, II, 221; see also 
Burials. 

Tommasini, I, 127. 

Tonsberg, I, 75. 

Tools, I, 111, 140,* 391, 431, 433, 435, II, 
Q3,e2054 .acticuitural, Iisors75 bone, L,e138; 
TAN mA Ss DOLiNigns dy 1S 7u bronze, Age, 
II, 198-200; cutting, II, 26; decorated, I, 
202s. sii alee 4agseesOt = InanuLactires: OF 
bracelets, II, 97; Hallstattian, II, 241-246; 
in. Paléolithic’ art; 01,. 2347 La Teéene;- C1, 
260-265; metal, II, 49, 144; Mousterian, 
DP erAOs sta Aer OL makes dwellers 1 lani6o; 
primary, I, 103; raw materials for, from 
Upper Paleolithic fauna, I, 456; retouch- 
(ip el Tots Secondary) ll enOgs 155) Smit 
Avie sly isso 1485.0 tertiary, 1; 9103; 1565 
wooden, I, 433. 

Toothpicks, I, 365. 

Toplitz, II, 232. 

Torches, II, 59. 

Torquay, I, 20, 65. 

orguessml l.m 500,810 6 202,0204068 201s 6200) 
293; 275,» 204, 2207. 

(Lorralbas Goofia),. 1,100) bide Ess = 

(Lorsksa lize ad, 

Tortoise shell, II, 95. 

Tortosillas (Valencia), II, 456. 

Aiehtelne, Ws 2s 

Toulinguet, II, 129. 

Tounialou (Dordogne), II, 342. 

Tourasse, La (Haute-Garonne), II, 6, 382. 

Tourassian, II, 3. 

Mouridleele 2164 0Ge 

Tournette, ancestor of potter’s wheel, Ii, 82. 

Tournier, Abbé, I, 402. 

Trabersdorf (Lower Austria), II, 303. 

Trade, Neolithic, II, 98; routes, in Bronze 
Age, II, 211-212. 

DraditiongLwAS 

Tragoceros, I, 87. 

Tranchet, I, 73. 

Transition period between Paleolithic and 
Neolithic, II, 3-20. 

Transportation complex, II, 133. 

Transvaal, 2,423. 

Transylvania, II, 204. 

Trap and’ pit, IL,2130. 

Trapa heeri, I, 53; natans, II, 46, 156. 

Trappings, metal, II, 236. 

Traun Valley, I, 34. 

Travel, improvement in facilities of, II, 133, 
134. 

Traveler’s Rest (Gambridge), II, 323. 

Travertine, I, 57, 81, 83, 340, 341, 343, 356, 
357- 

(Treacher lls e116: 

Trebizonde, II, 178. 

Tree burials, II, 285. 

Tree, human genealogical, II, 295.* 

Trepanation, see Trephining. 

Trephining, I, 10, II, 23, 105, 160-169. 

Tridents, 41262, 8263; 


272-275; case, La 


514 


Trie-Chateau (Qise),, Il, -31,%) 110: 
Mrieplatz, Ligsi93.~ 
Trilobite;, Le @vyionne) clo t77elee soz. 


Trini ava, (1S 3912)" 31358 sia se anor, 
see Pithecanthropus. 

Tripods Ll, = 2345235, 243- 

Tripoli, livwirete 

Triprothomo, I, 302. 

Lriskeles* LL) %253,0250, .27,0. 

Tristram, II, 48. 

Triticum dicoccum, monococcum, and vul- 


Care esha ner spelran lan si. 

a tiviawlevel, 1, 73; 

Troglodytes, I, 299, 309; dawsoni, I, 335. 

Trogontherium cuvieri, I, 63. 

Trois-Fréres (Ariége), I, 226, 244, 252,* 262, 
289, 291, II, 172, 382, 442, 458, 459, 460. 

Tronattas, 4 00ue. 

Tronoen, ll.) 257. 

Trouille Valley, I, 106. 

WRierhis Ahy evi arses whet IME, dees 

Troy, LL, 0783) 180, 18a, 1825. 102: 

Trumpets, ID, 106,* 107, 199,~ 260. 

Trundholm (Zealand), II, 213, 214.* 

russ, toilet; 01, 272° 

Tsimshian Indians, II, 173. 

Tubes, glass, II, 185, 205. 

uc dwvndouberts CAmege) Urees 7m edanetse 
246," 247," 248," 249," / 289," 291, 11,170, 
383, 442, 458, 459, 460. 

AM EMIS I Mor (Ser. Pune IOS eee 

Tumiac (Morbihan), II, 98, 119. 

Tramulty ll, e220," 130, 6 9250-347 694.0 40am, 
ELO; ale O Mele ieee. e W4 Ose 6 OME Oh mens 
ZiT 2055 2tO,aneee. 22s eee 4245, ee O; 
242, 243, 245, 246, 247, 248, 262, 264, 
277, 281, 286, 288, 295; Epoch of, II, 234; 
Hallstattian, II, 234, 281, 286; see also 
Burials. 

Tundras, I, 38, 52, 54, 57, 434- 

Tune (Norway), II, 146. 

Tunic, armless, Hallstattian, II, 247. 

Minis; ele 1e4ner 5 Gs aki Ll ce wero mC ael= 
lean and Acheulian stations in, [, 128; 
cultures of Europe represented by, I, 123; 
Mousterian stations in, I, 151. 

Turbarian, Lower, I, 58, 60, 61; 
1 Coy, rey, Cone, AME, ee 

Turkestan, II, 153. 

Turkey, domesticated, II, 151, 152. 

Turin, collection at, II, 179. 

Turner, Sir William, II, 296. 

Mier pel wes oi 

Turquoise, II, 98, 105, 120, 185, 202, 2¢8. 

Tursac (Dordogne), I, 184. 

Dascany,.) LL 177.0795 

Daveezers, «Ll S6.5 2040021 6; 

Twill, II, 92. 

Typology, Aurignacian, I, 165. 

Lyrol lly 77. eee. 7 7 

Tyrolian Epoch, I, 54, 60, 61. 

Tyrrhenian stage, I, 62. 


Upper, 


Pier. yep eXetey 


Uhlenhuth, I, 294. 

Ulinus, IT, 157: 

Wimbrias.).01.3° 

Umbrians, II, 229. 

Undset, Ui wz 

Unétice culture, II, 91. 

Unio httoralis, I, 118, 125, 434. 


INDEX 


United States, I, 57. 

Unter Lunkhofen, II, 232.* 

Unter-Uhldingen (Baden), II, 73, 74.* 

Upper Forestian interglacial phase, I, 58, 
60, 61. ' 

Upper Paleolithic period, I, 154-206, II, 137; 
characteristics of, I, 436; cultural elements 
of, I, 154-157; divisions of, I, 439; ethnic 
elements of, I, 158; fauna of, I, 435; man 
in, 1, 405-407, ,llowieSs 

Upper Turbarian Glacial Phase, I, 59, 60, 61, 

11, Bs 

Ur dynasty, II, 51. 

UrEngur, oe) Tesi. 

Ur-Nina, King, II, 178. 

Ural Mts., I,° 54. 

Urban, life, 11, 25x. 

Urnenfelder, II, 225. 

Urns, ceramic, II, 232; face; 11,3 Som oom 
267; house, II, 89, 90%; mortuary, Lies 
I2Z2I, 206," 230, 235, 243; 244) 5206, eenn" 

Ursus, I, 278, 414% 438, IE, 143 archos 
347; arvernensis, I, 320; ferox, I, 402; 
spelaeus, I, 48, 116, 142, 143, 165, 180. 

Wah aleero2: 

Utensils, Bronze Age, II, 198-200; gold, 
II, 205; Hallstattian, II, 241-246; hearth, 
II, °264; La Téne, II, 260-265; wooden, 
II, 30. 

Utzmemming (Bavaria), II, 292. 

Uwarof (Caucasus), II, 403. 





Vaccinium myrtillus, II, 156. 

Vache, La (Ariége), II, 383, 442. 

Vachons, Les (Charente), II, 384. 

Valle. (Santander), II, 171, 414. 

Valley deposits, I, 19,* 20, 130, 212. 

Valleys, over-deepened, I, 32,* 33; wind, 66. 

Valltorta, Barranco de (Castellon), II, 457. 

Van Beneden, I, 86. 

Vannes Museum, II, 119. 

Varberg, II, 1097. 

Varese, Lake, II, 142, 188, 200. 

Varilles (Marne), II, 277. 

Varimpré (Seine-Inférieure), II, 265. 

Varves, I, 67. 

Vases, II, 253; baking of, II, 83; Bologna, 
II, 188; bronze, Il, 190,*) ror, 200,2au 
232, 239," 241," 242, 243; scaliciformean 


88,* 120, 185; cup-shaped, II, 82; glass, 
II, 246; gold, II,” 204, 216) 257, tareeee 
II, 230, 232, 235; Gundestrup, II, 260,” 


261,* 262*; Hallstattiany Jil,” 292,, eee 
metal, II, 265; Neolithic, II, 91*; oenochoé 
type, II, 241,* +243; painted, Il, 245; "pot 
tery, II, 75, 186, 267, 284; silver, II, 180; 
tripod, II, 90; with handles, II, 185. 

Vauréal (Seine-et-Oise), II, 166. 

Veddahs;) Ijy3)tus. 

Vehicles, four-wheeled, ITI, 153. 

Velem St. Veit (Steinamanger), II, 253. 

Velennes (Oise), II, 58. 

Velez Blanco, II, 457. 

Velia, II, 267. 

Vendée, I, 126. 

Vendrest (Seine-et-Marne). II, 169. 

Venta de la Pasada de Gibralter, I, 140; 
de la Perra (Santander), II, 457. 

Ventimiglia, II, 220. 

Venturi, I, 14. 


INDEX 


Venus, Grotte des Rideaux, I, 257, 259*; 


Willendorf, I, 256, 257, 260.* 

Vercingetorix, II, 252. 

Verneau, I, 282, 387,* 389,* 390,* 392, 393, 
400. 

Verner, I, 284. 

Verriére, La (Gironde), I, 161. 

Verworn, I, 87, 88, 89, 91. 

NMessels, 11, 97, 193;- bronze, II, 75, 211,* 
Boop weeciive slieweto7 5 clay, painted, IT, 
242,* 268,* 269*; clay, with punctate dec- 
oration, II, 95*; food, II, 206,* 281; glass, 
iireas- 240: allstattian, Il, 242;* 243*; 
pottery, Il,75, 128, 288"; rests for, II, 
75; silver, II, 180; wooden, II, 253. 

Vester-Gotland, II, 160. 

Vesterland (Schleswig), II, 137.* 

Vetulonia, II, 229. 

NWevey-oll, 271.283," 285, 287. 

Veyrier, Le (Haute-Savoie), I, 
II, 443. 

Vezére Valley (Dordogne), I, 23, 88, 130, 
143, 184, 249, II, 458. 

Vibrata Valley, I, 18, II, 61. 

de Vibraye, Marquis, I, 86, 172, 354. 

Vic de Burthecourt (Lorraine), II, 238. 

Vichy, II, 218. 

Vicia faba, II, 157. 

Victoria Cave (Yorkshire), I, 56, II, 9, 323. 

Vidsk6éfle, II, 192.* 

Vielle, E., II, 9. 

Vienna Anthropological Society, I, 414. 

Vienna Museum, II, 230. 

Vienne, II, 67, 107. 

Vieux-Moulin, II, 129. 

Vignette, La, II, 66. 

Vigo gap, I, 94. 

Viking burials, II, 137*; ships, II, 145, 146, 
EAgee 

Vilhonneur (Charente), II, 186. 

Village life, II, 22. 

Villages, Bronze Age, II, 186; lake, II, 22, 
45, 46, 154; Neolithic, II, 61-64; pile, II, 
68,* 71, 72, 735 74, 75, 151, 186, 209, 212, 
@ig,)953; 275. 

Villaneuva (Santander), II, 414. 

Villanova, II, 182. 

Villanovan necropoli, II, 234; phase, II, 229, 
256. 

Villaricos (Almeria), II, 254. 

Willartent Isa, IE, 764. 

Villeder (Morbihan), II, 179. 

Villefranche-sur-Sa6ne (Rhone), I, 
384. 

Villejuif (Seine), I, 118. 

Villement (Indre), II, 245. 

de Villeneuve, Abbé, I, 386, 387. 

Villiers-sous-Gres (Seine-et-Marne), II, 66. 

Vin colonization, I, 75. 

Vindhya Mts., II, 16. 

Vinelz (Fenil), II, 47, 69,* 72, 92, 154, 157, 
187, 188. 

Viollier, II, 72, 222. 

Virchow, I, 86, 341. 

Virchow (Caucasus), II, 404. 

Waite, 1; 9, II, 210. 

Vision, I, 2, 3. 

Vistula River, II, 88, 211. 

Vitis neuwirthiana and vinifera, I, 53. 

Vitry les Reims (Marne), II, 279. 


hits Pipe 


141, II, 


DLS 


Volcanic glass, II, 99. 

Vole, II, 60. 

Volgu (Saone-et-Loire), I, 177, 178.* 
Volkov, I, 171, 287. 

Vollerup, II, 28.* 

Volterra, II, 267. 

Volutes, in Paleolithic art, I, 287. 
Vouga,« 115.69, 70, 71.250, 1251, 257; 276." 
Viulcis) Il) 220). 250. 

Vultur fulvus, I, 48. 

Vypustek (Moravia), II, 315. 


Wadjak, man of, I, 418. 

Wagon, evolution of, from sled, II, 149. 

Waldalgesheim, II, 286. 

Wales, II, 66, 121. 

Walkoff, I, 316. 

Walnut, If, .155- 

Wangen (Switzerland), II, 92, 96,* 141, 155, 
156. 

Wankel, I, 397. 

Warehouses, II, 209. 

Warren, I, 109; H., II, 66. 

Warriors, burial of, during La Téne Epoch, 
II, 281-283; burial of, at King’s Barrow, 
II, 287; equipment of, II, 235. 

Water, as geologic agent, I, 30; nut, II, 46, 
156; supply, II, 218, 458; vole, II, 60. 

Waterson, I, 334. 

Watsch, II, 232, 242, 260. 

Wauwil, II, 154. 

Wave motives, II, 86; ornaments, in Paleo- 
lithic art, I, 287. 

Wavre, W., II, 250. 

Wax models, II, 19% 

Wayland’s Smithy, II, 463. 

Weald, I, 63, 92, 93, 107, 327. 

Weapons, II, 281; bronze, I, 49; Bronze 
Age, II, 193-198; burial of, II, 284; cop- 
per, II, 185; earliest, I, 9; Hallstattian, 
II, 238-241; in Hjortspring vessel, II, 146; 
La Téne, II, 253-260, 277-278; Neolithic, 
Ties arts a otsulakesmadwellersye Ll 6g) 
ornamented, II, 268: Paleolithic, II, 139.* 
Weaving, II, 45, 46, 92, 253, 275; Neo- 
lithic, examples of, II, 96.* 

Weber, C. A., II, 74. 

Wedges, stone, II, 59; wood or horn, II, 60. 

Weights, and measures, II, 212,* 213; for 
fishing nets, II, 141. 

Weiher, II, 75. 

Weimar, I, 57, 81, 141, 320, II, 392; man of, 

FE, 340-350; Museum, I, 341. 

Wernert, P., I, 47. 

Westlake, I, 87. 

Weybourn Crag, I, 39, 52. 

Wheat, II, 35, 46, 154, 155. 

Wheel, as symbol, II, 218; complex, II, 133; 
complex and modern civilization, II, 150— 
151; development of, II, 150; motive, II, 
217; Neolithic, II, 149-151; potter’s, II, 
FO Ol snOcsnO0n 2050524450205. 

Wheels, II, 207, 256, 259; first, II, 150. 

Whetstone, II, 56. 

Whitburn, IT, 9. 

Whitlingham, I, 99. 

Whortleberry, II, 156. 

Wiegers, I, 47, 48, 83. 

Wierzchow (Galicia), II, 402, 445. 

Wies (Styria), II, 232. 


516 


Wild boar, I, 39, 160, 221, 271, 314, 438, 
IT). 11,14, 45, (46,054, -60), 07; a4tsn ase, 
223, 259, 260, 277, 287; goat, I, 239, 243, 
208, 269, 271, 272, 279, 361, 392, 438, II, 
60, 75, 170, 228; sheep, / I, 270, 438, 

Wildcat, II, 25, 46, 60. 

Wildest Sir, We Riv law 

Wildhaus (Nassau), II, 392. 

Wildkirchli (Appenzell) cavern, I, 57, 76, 
L747 s UGOe 30, AL le at, 

Wildscheuer (Nassau), I, 287, II, 393, 444. 

Willendorf (Lower Austria), I, 43, 155, 164, 
254, 256, 260,* 407, II, 171, 302, 419. 

Willow, II, 157; polar, I, 57. 

Willow baskets, I, 55. 

Willow-leaf points, I, 179,* 180, 437, II, 254. 

Wilts, 1,-95. 

Wiltshire, I, 97, 11, 125: 

Wine pitchers, II, 241,* 243. 

Wines, II, 264. 

Winge, H., II, 12. 

Wipp River, I, 37. 

Wire, metal, II, 202; silver, II, 180. 

Wisconsin stage, I, 51, 57, 61. 

Wissant, I, 64. 

Witham River, II, 257. 

Woennyi (Yenesei), II, 406. 

Wolf, I, 39587; 173; 170, 209) 279; 436, 
JARs. ilo ee MeXoree 

Wolfrathshausen, I, 35. 

Wollishofen, II, 29, 72, 187, 212. 

Women, engravings of, I, 242; figurine of, in 
ivory, I, 260*; models of, I, 239; Neolithic, 
clothing of, II, 93; paintings of, I, 240*; 
pottery work of, II, 76. 

Wood, II, 255, 257, 258,* 265, 274, 292; used 
by Neolithic man, II, 157. 

Woodward, A. Smith, I, 107, 324, 325, 329, 
340, 370. 

Wookey Hole (Somerset), II, 323. 

Wiooltell, 246,502,615 5,5 202. 

Woolly elephant, see Elephant, woolly; rhi- 
noceros, see Rhinoceros, woolly. 

Workmanship, skill in, I, 437. 

Workmen, Acheulian, I, 120. 


INDEX 


Workshops, I, 106, 147, 148, 149, 152, II, 
9, 13, 47, 48, 53, 54, 59, 60, 61; Acheulian, 
I, 118-122; Capsian; I, 159; in Timigee: 
128; Neolithic, II, 64-67, 142; Paleolithic, 
II, 66; Syrian, I, 129. 

Worm, Olaf, I, 11. 

Worms (Hesse), II, 108, 155; burial at, II, 
TO7s 

Worsaae, I, 13, 86, II, 24, 183. 

Writing, cursive, I, 246, II, 6; Paleolithic, 
ir ae86: 

Wirm Glacial Epoch, I, 36, 41, 47, 49, 57, 5%, 
60, 61, 64, 67,* 77, 83, 84, 141, 145, 195, 
422, 433. 

Wiirttemberg, I, 425, II, 6, 232, 236, 292. 

Wurzburg, II, 232. 


Yarmouth Interglacial Epoch, I, 54, 61. 
Yellow weed, II, 46, 156. 
Yenisei Valley, I, 195, 
(ey tha, Eneley 
Yew, il, vis7 
Yoke, IT; 257; 258,"" 283, 
Yoldia arctica, I, 69. 
Yoldia Sea, Ty 70) 
Yorkshire, II, 72, 288. 
Yucay Valley, II, 163. 
Yunnan, II, 175, 179. 


439; Magdalenian 


Zaharani Brook, II, 48. 

Zavisza, I, 284. 

Zealand, IJ, 11, 14,935, 147.) 101neeae 

Levu Liens. 

Zeiselberg (Lower Austria), II, 303. 

Zelova melanie 

de Zeltner, I, 88, 90. 

Zemské Museum, Brinn, I, 354, 308. 

Zentino, Sefiora, collection of, II, 163. 

Zoology, I, 430. 

Zouzette, La (Haute-Marne), II, 443. 

Zumoftfen, II, 47, 48. : 

Zurich, II, 72, 73, 83, 21255 lake 01s eae 
57, Il, 187, 248, 249,* 263*; Museuniear 
II, 75, 251. 


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